Janine Rogalski

Acquisition of Programming Knowledge and Skills

Acquiring and developing knowledge about programming is a highly complex process. This chapter presents a framework for the analysis of programming. It serves as a backdrop for a discussion of findings on learning. Studies in the field and pedagogical work both indicate that the processing dimension involved in programming acquisition is mastered best. The representation dimension related to data structuring and problem modelling is the ‘poor relation’ of programming tasks. This reflects the current emphasis on the computational programming paradigm, linked to dynamic mental models.

A Cross-Analysis of the Mathematics Teacher's Activity: An Example in a French 10th-Grade Class.

The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the debate about how to tackle the issue of ‘the teacher in the teaching/learning process’, and to propose a methodology for analysing the teacher’s activity in the classroom, based on concepts used in the fields of the didactics of mathematics as well as in cognitive ergonomics. This methodology studies the mathematical activity the teacher organises for students during classroom sessions and the way he manages1 the relationship between students and mathematical tasks in two approaches: a didactical one [Robert, A., Recherches en Didactique des Mathematiques 21(1/2), 2001, 7–56] and a psychological one [Rogalski, J., Recherches en Didactique des Mathematiques 23(3), 2003, 343–388]. Articulating the two perspectives permits a twofold analysis of the classroom session dynamics: the “cognitive route” students are engaged in—through teacher’s decisions—and the mediation of the teacher for controlling students’ involvement in the process of acquiring the mathematical concepts being taught. The authors present an example of this cross-analysis of mathematics teachers’ activity, based on the observation of a lesson composed of exercises given to 10th grade students in a French ‘ordinary’ classroom. Each author made an analysis from her viewpoint, the results are confronted and two types of inferences are made: one on potential students’ learning and another on the freedom of action the teacher may have to modify his activity. The paper also places this study in the context of previous contributions made by others in the same field.

Analysing communication in complex distributed decision-making

This paper analyses emergency tasks within the theoretical framework of dynamic environment management with distributed decision-making (DDM). Models of task and work organization are used to analyse verbal exchanges in order to infer collective strategies. A cross-analysis method serves to analyse communication from the standpoint of both semantics and structure of the exchanges. The findings of two empirical comparative studies show that invariants vs differences in the organization and the semantics of exchanges are associated with invariants vs differences in parameters of the situations themselves (initial state and final result of actions). Efficient strategies were linked with well-structured flow of communication and roles distribution.

Decision Making and Management of Dynamic Risk

Abstract: Managing dynamic environments often requires decision making under uncertainty and risk. Two types of uncertainty are involved: uncertainty about the state and the evolution of the situation, and ‘openness’ of the possible actions to face possible consequences. In an experimental study on risk management in dynamic situations, two contrasted ‘ecological’ scenarios – transposed from effective situations of emergency management – were compared in order to identify the impact of their ‘openness’ in the subjects’ strategies for decision making. The ‘Lost Child’ scenario presented qualitative and irreversible consequences (child’s death) and high uncertainty; it exerted high demands both in risk assessment (risk representation) and action elaboration and choice. A less open situation (‘Hydrocarbon Fire’) required a main choice between two contrasted actions, with quantitative computable consequences. The strategies of ‘experimental subjects’ (university students) and ‘operative subjects’ (professional fire-fighter officers) were compared in order to evaluate the ecological validity of experimental research in this field, from the point of view of the subjects themselves. The two scenarios appeared to be independent, so that quite different models of decision making have to be hypothesised, differing by the importance of assessing risk and defining possible actions on the one hand, and by the process of choice on the other. ‘Experimental’ subjects dramatically differed from ‘operative’ subjects when confronted with the same scenario, particularly for the less technical but more demanding scenario. It is hypothesised that three components might account for the effect of the situations and for the differences between and within groups of subjects: importance of situation assessment, spatial abilities, and global orientation of activity in managing dynamic risk.

Task Analysis and Cognitive Model as a Framework to Analyse Environments for Learning Programming

Elements of a theoretical framework are presented for analysing programming tasks and identifying potential cognitive difficulties depending on training stages. Programming is considered in its professional meaning, as the whole task starting from a “problem in the world” and developing up to the status of an “implemented program”. By “operative tools” we mean all “external support systems”, whether they are computer-based or not, which aim to support learning activity in the domain of programming. The theoretical framework is used to define criteria to analyse operative tools for learning programming. Potential functionalities of training aids are analysed in relationship with the target programming knowledge and tasks.

Collective management in dynamic situations: the individual contribution

This paper presents an empirical study for extending the ecological safety model developed for individual activity (Amalberti in La conduite des systèmes à risques, PUF, 1996; Hoc and Amalberti in J Cogn Eng Decis Mak 1:22–55, 2007) to collective management. The study took place in a medical emergency center (SAMU) and focused on individual contribution to safety of collective management. The experiment aimed at extending the domain of validity of the conclusions of a previous study (Marc and Amalberti in Trav Hum 65:217–242, 2002) showing that individual intervention (as an actor and as an observer) in collective action was a matter of ecological safety. A “pseudo-simulation” was designed for confronting experienced PARMs and physicians of the SAMU with a series of “safety events” in the functioning of “their” emergency center. In the position of observers, participants were asked to comment on what they observed during a series of short periods of simulated activity and to assess situation mastery by the various actors observed. The results confirm that the model of ecological safety is directly relevant for collective management of “technical errors”: as observers, participants reacted to safety events depending on their potential consequences; not all “erroneous” actions oriented toward task performing were detected, and if detected they were not always identified; participants focused mainly on errors they observed which might have operational consequences on the global quality of safety management in the center. Concerning “non-technical errors” in collective work, participants were focusing on safety management by the physician as the responsible for the center safe functioning; they were less prone to identify safety events related to teamwork itself. These last results can be interpreted at the light of an extension of the ecological model of safety management for taking into account the teamwork-oriented dimension in collective work.

Logic abilities and mental representations of the informatical device in acquisition of conditional structures by 15–16 year old students

During the acquisition of programming concepts prior knowledge may serve as «precursor» and interacts with the informatical concepts; nevertheless the integration of prior knowledge in the new informatical frame requires forming mental representations on this device. Two experiments on conditional structures (on 10th grade students) are reported: they show that logical knowledge is a prerequisite to the acquisition of conditional structures but is not sufficient to insure acquisition. Properties of natural communication are used by many beginners when they need to handle dialog with an informatical device in programming tasks. A model, termed the PRES-model is defined, which accounts for the discrepancy observed between logical knowledge and success on programming tasks.RésuméLors des acquisitions en programmation des connaissances préalables peuvent servir de précurseurs; elles interagissent alors avec les concepts informatiques. Toutefois l’intégration de ces connaissances antérieures dans le nouveau cadre informatique exige la construction de représentations mentales sur le dispositif informatique. Les auteurs présentent deux expériences sur l’acquisition des structures conditionnelles par des élèves de seconde (15–16 ans). Les résultats montrent d’une part que des connaissances logiques sont des prérequis pour cette acquisition mais ne sont pas suffisantes, d’autre part que de nombreux élèves utilisent des caractères de la communication naturelle lors de la communication avec le dispositif informatique. Un modèle de présupposition (le modèle PRES) est introduit par les auteurs pour rendre compte de la différence entre les connaissances logiques et la réussite dans des tâches de programmation.

Stability of Practices

In this chapter, we will present a comparative study examining excerpts from two geometry classes1 taught by the same teacher.2 The classes involve students in two different grades at the same junior high school.

DESIGNING SYSTEMS FOR TRAINING AND DECISION AIDS: COGNITVE TASK ANALYSIS AS A PREREQUISITE

The general aim of this study is to define the characteristics of a system designed to aid users both in decision making and training, in situations which share certain properties with supervisory control tasks. It focuses on the Method for Tactical Reasoning (MTR), which is a guideline for defining and reaching an optimal target state in complex situations concerning public safety. The method is analyzed within the Rasmussens framework. This theoretical examination suggests that the computer and the operator should act serially. Observations of safety officiers during training in MTR provided data on mental strategies and required backround knowledge. These findings are discussed in terms of the definition of properties of computer-based training systems.