Janneke J. Maaskant

The mannose cap of mycobacterial lipoarabinomannan does not dominate the Mycobacterium–host interaction

Pathogenic mycobacteria have the ability to persist in phagocytic cells and to suppress the immune system. The glycolipid lipoarabinomannan (LAM), in particular its mannose cap, has been shown to inhibit phagolysosome fusion and to induce immunosuppressive IL−10 production via interaction with the mannose receptor or DC‐SIGN. Hence, the current paradigm is that the mannose cap of LAM is a crucial factor in mycobacterial virulence. However, the above studies were performed with purified LAM, never with live bacteria. Here we evaluate the biological properties of capless mutants of Mycobacterium marinum and M. bovis BCG, made by inactivating homologues of Rv1635c. We show that its gene product is an undecaprenyl phosphomannose‐dependent mannosyltransferase. Compared with parent strain, capless M. marinum induced slightly less uptake by and slightly more phagolysosome fusion in infected macrophages but this did not lead to decreased survival of the bacteria in vitro, nor in vivo in zebra fish. Loss of caps in M. bovis BCG resulted in a sometimes decreased binding to human dendritic cells or DC‐SIGN‐transfected Raji cells, but no differences in IL‐10 induction were observed. In mice, capless M. bovis BCG did not survive less well in lung, spleen or liver and induced a similar cytokine profile. Our data contradict the current paradigm and demonstrate that mannose‐capped LAM does not dominate the Mycobacterium–host interaction.

Identification of Mycobacterial α-Glucan As a Novel Ligand for DC-SIGN: Involvement of Mycobacterial Capsular Polysaccharides in Host Immune Modulation

Mycobacterium tuberculosis possesses a variety of immunomodulatory factors that influence the host immune response. When the bacillus encounters its target cell, the outermost components of its cell envelope are the first to interact. Mycobacteria, including M. tuberculosis, are surrounded by a loosely attached capsule that is mainly composed of proteins and polysaccharides. Although the chemical composition of the capsule is relatively well studied, its biological function is only poorly understood. The aim of this study was to further assess the functional role of the mycobacterial capsule by identifying host receptors that recognize its constituents. We focused on α-glucan, which is the dominant capsular polysaccharide. Here we demonstrate that M. tuberculosis α-glucan is a novel ligand for the C-type lectin DC-SIGN (dendritic cell-specific ICAM-3-grabbing nonintegrin). By using related glycogen structures, we show that recognition of α-glucans by DC-SIGN is a general feature and that the interaction is mediated by internal glucosyl residues. As for mannose-capped lipoarabinomannan, an abundant mycobacterial cell wall-associated glycolipid, binding of α-glucan to DC-SIGN stimulated the production of immunosuppressive IL-10 by LPS-activated monocyte-derived dendritic cells. By using specific inhibitors, we show that this IL-10 induction was DC-SIGN-dependent and also required acetylation of NF-κB. Finally, we demonstrate that purified M. tuberculosis α-glucan, in contrast to what has been reported for fungal α-glucan, was unable to activate TLR2.

Role of phosphatidylinositol mannosides in the interaction between mycobacteria and DC-SIGN.

ABSTRACT The C-type lectin dendritic cell (DC)-specific intercellular adhesion molecule 3-grabbing nonintegrin (DC-SIGN) is the major receptor on DCs for mycobacteria of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. Recently, we have shown that although the mannose caps of the mycobacterial surface glycolipid lipoarabinomannan (ManLAM) are essential for the binding to DC-SIGN, genetic removal of these caps did not diminish the interaction of whole mycobacteria with DC-SIGN and DCs. Here we investigated the role of the structurally related glycolipids phosphatidylinositol mannosides (PIMs) as possible ligands for DC-SIGN. In a binding assay with both synthetic and natural PIMs, DC-SIGN exhibited a high affinity for hexamannosylated PIM6, which contains terminal α(1→2)-linked mannosyl residues identical to the mannose cap on ManLAM, but not for di- and tetramannosylated PIM2 and PIM4, respectively. To determine the role of PIM6 in the binding of whole mycobacteria to DC-SIGN, a mutant strain of M. bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin deficient in the production of PIM6 (ΔpimE) was created, as well as a double knockout deficient in the production of both PIM6 and the mannose caps on LAM (ΔpimE ΔcapA). Compared to the wild-type strain, both mutant strains bound similarly well to DC-SIGN and DCs. Furthermore, the wild-type and mutant strains induced comparable levels of interleukin-10 and interleukin-12p40 when used to stimulate DCs. Hence, we conclude that, like ManLAM, PIM6 represents a bona fide DC-SIGN ligand but that other, as-yet-unknown, ligands dominate in the interaction between mycobacteria and DCs.

Phase variation in H type I and lewis a epitopes of Helicobacter pylori lipopolysaccharide

ABSTRACT Helicobacter pylori NCTC 11637 lipopolysaccharide (LPS) expresses the human blood group antigens Lewis x (Lex), Ley, and H type I. In this report, we demonstrate that the H type I epitope displays high-frequency phase variation. One variant expressed Lex and Ley and no H type I as determined by serology; this switch was reversible. Insertional mutagenesis in NCTC 11637 of JHP563 (a poly(C) tract containing an open reading frame homologous to glycosyltransferases) yielded a transformant with a serotype similar to the phase variant. Structural analysis of the NCTC 11637 LPS confirmed the loss of the H type I epitope. Sequencing of JHP563 in strains NCTC 11637, an H type I-negative variant, and an H type I-positive switchback variant showed a C14 (gene on), C13 (gene off), and C14 tract, respectively. Inactivation of strain G27, which expresses Lex, Ley, H type I, and Lea, yielded a transformant that expressed Lex and Ley. We conclude that JHP563 encodes a β3-galactosyltransferase involved in the biosynthesis of H type I and Lea and that phase variation in H type I is due to C-tract changes in this gene. A second H type I-negative variant (variant 3a) expressed Lex and Lea and had lost both H type I and Leyexpression. Inactivation of HP093-HP094 resulted in a transformant expressing Lex and lacking Ley and H type I. Structural analysis of a mutant LPS confirmed the serological data. We conclude that the HP093-HP094 α2-fucosyltransferase (α2-FucT) gene product is involved in the biosynthesis of both Ley and Lex. Finally, we inactivated HP0379 in strain 3a. The transformant had lost both Lex and Leaexpression, which demonstrates that the HP0379 gene product is both an α3- and an α4-FucT. Our data provide understanding at the molecular level of how H. pylori is able to diversify in the host, a requirement likely essential for successful colonization and transmission.

A truncated lipoglycan from mycobacteria with altered immunological properties

Maintenance of cell-wall integrity in Mycobacterium tuberculosis is essential and is the target of several antitubercular drugs. For example, ethambutol targets arabinogalactan and lipoarabinomannan (LAM) biosynthesis through the inhibition of several arabinofuranosyltransferases. Apart from their role in cell-wall integrity, mycobacterial LAMs also exhibit important immunomodulatory activities. Here we report the isolation and detailed structural characterization of a unique LAM molecule derived from Mycobacterium smegmatis deficient in the arabinofuranosyltransferase AftC (AftC-LAM). This mutant LAM expresses a severely truncated arabinan domain completely devoid of 3,5-Araf–branching residues, revealing an intrinsic involvement of AftC in the biosynthesis of LAM. Furthermore, we found that ethambutol efficiently inhibits biosynthesis of the AftC-LAM arabinan core, unambiguously demonstrating the involvement of the arabinofuranosyltransferase EmbC in early stages of LAM-arabinan biosynthesis. Finally, we demonstrate that AftC-LAM exhibits an enhanced proinflammatory activity, which is due to its ability to activate Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2). Overall, our efforts further describe the mechanism of action of an important antitubercular drug, ethambutol, and demonstrate a role for specific arabinofuranosyltransferases in LAM biosynthesis. In addition, the availability of sufficient amounts of chemically defined wild-type and isogenic truncated LAMs paves the way for further investigations of the structure–function relationship of TLR2 activation by mycobacterial lipoglycans.

Pyrazinoic Acid Decreases the Proton Motive Force, Respiratory ATP Synthesis Activity, and Cellular ATP Levels

ABSTRACT Pyrazinoic acid, the active form of the first-line antituberculosis drug pyrazinamide, decreased the proton motive force and respiratory ATP synthesis rates in subcellular mycobacterial membrane assays. Pyrazinoic acid also significantly lowered cellular ATP levels in Mycobacterium bovis BCG. These results indicate that the predominant mechanism of killing by this drug may operate by depletion of cellular ATP reserves.

Multiple haem-utilization loci in Helicobacter pylori

To identify genes responsible for the utilization of haem as an iron source in Helicobacter pylori, a siderophore synthesis mutant of Escherichia coli was transformed with an ordered cosmid library of H. pylori NCTC 11638. Four independent cosmids were found that were able to complement this mutant on iron-restrictive solid media containing different haem compounds as the sole source of iron. Hybridization experiments revealed that the four cosmids contained unrelated DNA fragments. No major differences were observed in the growth of the four transformants on iron-restrictive solid media to which different haem compounds had been added. None of the cosmids could confer the ability to use haem as an iron source to an E. coli aroB tonB mutant, which means that transport of iron and/or haem across the outer membrane requires a functional TonB protein. Further characterization of the cosmids revealed that one of them was also able to complement E. coli aroB hemA, indicating that the haem molecule is taken up as a whole by this haem-biosynthesis mutant. Expression of this haem-uptake system could not be repressed by excess iron. Another cosmid expressed two polypeptides in E. coli which were specifically immunoreactive with a polyclonal antiserum raised against whole cells of H. pylori. The production of these proteins appeared to be iron repressible. One of these proteins has the same molecular mass as a previously described 77 kDa haem-binding iron-repressible outer-membrane protein (IROMP) of H. pylori.

Mycobacterium marinum MMAR_2380, a predicted transmembrane acyltransferase, is essential for the presence of the mannose cap on lipoarabinomannan

Lipoarabinomannan (LAM) is a major glycolipid in the mycobacterial cell envelope. LAM consists of a mannosylphosphatidylinositol (MPI) anchor, a mannan core and a branched arabinan domain. The termini of the arabinan branches can become substituted with one to three α(1→2)-linked mannosyl residues, the mannose cap, producing ManLAM. ManLAM has been associated with a range of different immunomodulatory properties of Mycobacterium tuberculosis during infection of the host. In some of these effects, the presence of the mannose cap on ManLAM appears to be crucial for its activity. So far, in the biosynthesis of the mannose cap on ManLAM, two enzymes have been reported to be involved: a mannosyltransferase that adds the first mannosyl residue of the mannose caps to the arabinan domain of LAM, and another mannosyltransferase that elongates the mannose cap up to three mannosyl residues. Here, we report that a third gene is involved, MMAR_2380, which is the Mycobacterium marinum orthologue of Rv1565c. MMAR_2380 encodes a predicted transmembrane acyltransferase. In M. marinum ΔMMAR_2380, the LAM arabinan domain is still intact, but the mutant LAM lacks the mannose cap. Additional effects of mutation of MMAR_2380 on LAM were observed: a higher degree of branching of both the arabinan domain and the mannan core, and a decreased incorporation of [1,2-14C]acetate into the acyl chains in mutant LAM as compared with the wild-type form. This latter effect was also observed for related lipoglycans, i.e. lipomannan (LM) and phosphatidylinositol mannosides (PIMs). Furthermore, the mutant strain showed increased aggregation in liquid cultures as compared with the wild-type strain. All phenotypic traits of M. marinum ΔMMAR_2380, the deficiency in the mannose cap on LAM and changes at the cell surface, could be reversed by complementing the mutant strain with MMAR_2380. Strikingly, membrane preparations of the mutant strain still showed enzymic activity for the arabinan mannose-capping mannosyltransferase similar to that of the wild-type strain. Although the exact function of MMAR_2380 remains unknown, we show that the protein is essential for the presence of a mannose cap on LAM.

Inorganic phosphate limitation modulates capsular polysaccharide composition in mycobacteria

Mycobacterium tuberculosis is protected by an unusual and highly impermeable cell envelope that is critically important for the successful colonization of the host. The outermost surface of this cell envelope is formed by capsular polysaccharides that play an important role in modulating the initial interactions once the bacillus enters the body. Although the bioenzymatic steps involved in the production of the capsular polysaccharides are emerging, information regarding the ability of the bacterium to modulate the composition of the capsule is still unknown. Here, we study the mechanisms involved in regulation of mycobacterial capsule biosynthesis using a high throughput screen for gene products involved in capsular α-glucan production. Utilizing this approach we identified a group of mutants that all carried mutations in the ATP-binding cassette phosphate transport locus pst. These mutants collectively exhibited a strong overproduction of capsular polysaccharides, including α-glucan and arabinomannan, suggestive of a role for inorganic phosphate (Pi) metabolism in modulating capsular polysaccharide production. These findings were corroborated by the observation that growth under low Pi conditions as well as chemical activation of the stringent response induces capsule production in a number of mycobacterial species. This induction is, in part, dependent on σ factor E. Finally, we show that Mycobacterium marinum, a model organism for M. tuberculosis, encounters Pi stress during infection, which shows the relevance of our findings in vivo.

A Murine Monoclonal Antibody to Glycogen: Characterization of Epitope‐Fine Specificity by Saturation Transfer Difference (STD) NMR Spectroscopy and Its Use in Mycobacterial Capsular α‐Glucan Research

Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis (TB), is a major pathogen responsible for 1.5 million deaths annually. This bacterium is characterized by a highly unusual and impermeable cell envelope, which plays a key role in mycobacterial survival and virulence. Although many studies have focused on the composition and functioning of the mycobacterial cell envelope, the capsular α‐glucan has received relatively minor attention. Here we show that a murine monoclonal antibody (Mab) directed against glycogen cross‐reacts with mycobacterial α‐glucans, polymers of α(1–4)‐linked glucose residues with α(1–6)‐branch points. We identified the Mab epitope specificity by saturation transfer difference NMR and show that the α(1–4)‐linked glucose residues are important in glucan–Mab interaction. The minimal epitope is formed by (linear) maltotriose. Notably, a Mycobacterium mutant lacking the branching enzyme GlgB does not react with the Mab; this suggests that the α(1–6)‐branches form part of the epitope. These seemingly conflicting data can be explained by the fact that in the mutant the linear form of the α‐glucan (amylose) is insoluble. This Mab was subsequently used to develop several techniques helpful in capsular α‐glucan research. By using a capsular glucan‐screening methodology based on this Mab we were able to identify several unknown genes involved in capsular α‐glucan biogenesis. Additionally, we developed two methods for the detection of capsular α‐glucan levels. This study therefore opens new ways to study capsular α‐glucan and to identify possible targets for further research.