Janneke M. de Man-van Ginkel

In-Hospital Risk Prediction for Post-stroke Depression Development and Validation of the Post-stroke Depression Prediction Scale

Background and Purpose— The timely detection of post-stroke depression is complicated by a decreasing length of hospital stay. Therefore, the Post-stroke Depression Prediction Scale was developed and validated. The Post-stroke Depression Prediction Scale is a clinical prediction model for the early identification of stroke patients at increased risk for post-stroke depression. Methods— The study included 410 consecutive stroke patients who were able to communicate adequately. Predictors were collected within the first week after stroke. Between 6 to 8 weeks after stroke, major depressive disorder was diagnosed using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Multivariable logistic regression models were fitted. A bootstrap-backward selection process resulted in a reduced model. Performance of the model was expressed by discrimination, calibration, and accuracy. Results— The model included a medical history of depression or other psychiatric disorders, hypertension, angina pectoris, and the Barthel Index item dressing. The model had acceptable discrimination, based on an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.78 (0.72–0.85), and calibration (P value of the U-statistic, 0.96). Transforming the model to an easy-to-use risk-assessment table, the lowest risk category (sum score, <−10) showed a 2% risk of depression, which increased to 82% in the highest category (sum score, >21). Conclusions— The clinical prediction model enables clinicians to estimate the degree of the depression risk for an individual patient within the first week after stroke.

An Efficient Way to Detect Poststroke Depression by Subsequent Administration of a 9-Item and a 2-Item Patient Health Questionnaire

Background and Purpose— The early detection of poststroke depression is essential for optimizing recovery after stroke. A prospective study was conducted to investigate the diagnostic value of the 9-item and the 2-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9, PHQ-2). Methods— One hundred seventy-one consecutive patients with stroke who could communicate adequately were included. In the 6th to 8th weeks after stroke, depression was measured using the PHQ-9 and PHQ-2 and diagnosed using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Results— Of the participating patients, 20 (12.2%) were depressed. The PHQ-9 performed best at a score ≥10, a sensitivity of 0.80 (95% CI, 0.62–0.98), and a specificity of 0.78 (95% CI, 0.72–0.85) and the PHQ-2 at a score ≥2 with a sensitivity of 0.75 (95% CI, 0.56–0.94) and a specificity of 0.76 (95% CI, 0.69–0.83). Administering the PHQ-9 only to patients who scored ≥2 on the PHQ-2 improved the identification of depression (sensitivity, 0.87; 95% CI, 0.69–1.04). Conclusions— The diagnostic value is acceptable to good for PHQ-9 scores ≥10 and PHQ-2 scores ≥2. Conducting a PHQ-9 only in patients with a PHQ-2 score ≥2 generates the best results.

Screening for poststroke depression using the patient health questionnaire.

Background:Although poststroke depression has a significant impact on a patient’s ability to recover after stroke, it is generally not recognized. Structured screening can help nurses identify symptoms of depression in stroke patients. In clinical practice, the utility of an instrument is as importantas its validity and reliability. Objective:To investigate the reliability, validity, and clinical utility of the nine-item and two-item patient health questionnaires (PHQ-9 and PHQ-2, respectively) in stroke patients in a clinical nursing setting. The results of these questionnaires will be compared against those from the Geriatric Depression Scale. Methods:The PHQ-9 was administered by 43 ward nurses in 55 patients with an intracerebral hemorrhage or ischemic infarction who were able to communicate adequately. The interrater reliability, test–retest reliability and internal consistency, concurrent validity, diagnostic accuracy, and clinical utility were evaluated. Results:The interrater reliability (intraclass correlation [ICC] = 0.98, 95% CI [0.96, 0.99]), test–retest reliability (&rgr;Sp = 0.75, p < .001), and internal consistency (Cronbach’s &agr; = 0.79) of the PHQ-9 were good. The concurrent validity was moderate for the PHQ-9, with a Pearson’s correlation of .7 (p < .001) and acceptable for the PHQ-2 with a Pearson’s correlation of .8 (p < .01). The optimum cutoff point of the PHQ-9 for major depression was 10 (sensitivity, 100%; specificity,86%; positive predicted value, 50%; and negative predicted value, 100%). For the PHQ-2, the optimum cutoff point was 2 (sensitivity, 100%; specificity, 77%; positive predicted value, 38%; and negative predicted value, 100%). Discussion:The PHQ is a brief and easy-to-use instrument for nursing practice. It shows good reliability, validity, and clinical utility when used in stroke patients who are able to communicate adequately.

A systematic review of therapeutic interventions for poststroke depression and the role of nurses

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES This systematic review explores the nursing role in the management of poststroke depression and identifies effective non-pharmacological interventions that nurses can use in the daily care of patients with stroke. BACKGROUND Depression is a common complication poststroke and affects one-third of patients with stroke. It has a negative impact on functional recovery and social activities and is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Detection and diagnosis of poststroke depression is inconsistent, and many depressed patients are under-treated. Although nurses recognise that observation and assessment are parts of their role in rehabilitation care, little is known about their role in assessing depression or the interventions they can use. DESIGN A systematic review was conducted using the Cochrane method. METHODS Literature for the period 1993-2008 was searched in the electronic databases of CINAHL, Medline (PubMed), Nursing Journals (PubMed) and PsycINFO using the following keywords: cerebrovascular accident, stroke, depression, poststroke depression, treatment, therapy, treatment outcome, management. RESULTS Fifteen articles and one systematic review were identified. There was strong evidence that information provision reduces the severity of depression. Other interventions with positive effects on the occurrence or severity of poststroke depression were as follows: life review therapy, motivational interviewing, a specific nursing support programme and physical exercise. CONCLUSION Depression after stroke is an important problem with adverse effects on the patients ability to participate in rehabilitation and on rehabilitation outcome. The interventions described can be implemented in nursing care of patients with poststroke depression. The variety of such interventions and the diversity of their nature and design are consistent with the practice of rehabilitation nursing. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE   The findings of this review enable nurses to intervene effectively to reduce the occurrence and severity of depression in patients with stroke.

Identifying depression post-stroke in patients with aphasia: a systematic review of the reliability, validity and feasibility of available instruments

Objective: To identify and critically appraise the evidence for instruments assessing depression in stroke patients with aphasia. Methods: The PubMed, CINAHL, Web of Science, Psych Info and Cochrane databases were searched from inception until May 2015. Results: Of the 383 titles found in the search, 15 articles met the inclusion criteria and six instruments were identified: The Aphasic Depression Rating Scale, the Clinical Global Impression-Scale, the Stroke Aphasic Depression Questionnaire (four versions), the Signs of Depression Scale, the Visual Analogue Mood Scale (three versions) and the Visual Analogue Self Esteem Scale. Supporting evidence for reliability and validity was limited owing to methodological flaws in the studies influencing the ratings of methodological quality. Feasibility data were available for all instruments. Rating time of the instruments ranged from less than one minute to five minutes, two instruments required extensive training. Conclusion: A number of instruments to assess depressive symptoms in patients with aphasia are available. None of the instruments however, were found to be sufficiently investigated and most of the studies identified were of low methodological quality. Given the present evidence, the Stroke Aphasic Depression Questionnaire-10, the Stroke Aphasic Depression Questionnaire-H10 and the Signs of Depression Scale are the most feasible and can be recommended for clinical practice.

‘Doing with …’ rather than ‘doing for …’ older adults: rationale and content of the ‘Stay Active at Home’ programme:

Background: Owing to increasing age, accidents or periods of illness, home care services are provided to community-dwelling older adults. Traditionally, these services focus on doing things for older adults rather than with them; though from a rehabilitative perspective, it is important to assist older adults to attain and maintain their highest level of functioning. Consequently, a re-orientation of home care services is required away from treating disease and creating dependency towards focusing on capabilities and opportunities and maximising independence. To achieve this behavioural change in home care professionals, the ‘Stay Active at Home’ programme was developed. Aims and methods: The aim of this article is to give a detailed description of the rationale and content of the ‘Stay Active at Home’ programme by making use of the TIDieR (Template for Intervention Description and Replication) Checklist. Approach: ‘Stay Active at Home’ is a comprehensive training programme that aims to equip home care professionals (i.e. community nurses and domestic support workers) with the necessary knowledge, attitude, skills and social and organisational support to deliver day-to-day services at home from a more rehabilitative perspective. More specifically, home care professionals are expected to deliver goal-oriented, holistic and person-centred services focusing on supporting older adults to maintain, gain or restore their competences to engage in physical and daily activities so that they can manage their everyday life as independently as possible.

Clinical Manifestation of Depression after Stroke: Is It Different from Depression in Other Patient Populations?

Background Despite ample research on depression after stroke, the debate continues regarding whether symptoms such as sleep disturbances, loss of energy, changes in appetite and diminished concentration should be considered to be consequences of stroke or general symptoms of depression. By comparing symptoms in depressed and non-depressed stroke patients with patients in general practice and patients with symptomatic atherosclerotic diseases, we aim to further clarify similarities and distinctions of depression after stroke and depression in other patient populations. Based on this, it is possible to determine if somatic symptoms should be evaluated in stroke patients in diagnosing depression after stroke. Methods An observational multicenter study is conducted in three hospitals and seven general practices including 382 stroke patients admitted to hospital with a clinical diagnosis of intracerebral hemorrhage or ischemic infarction, 1160 patients in general practice (PREDICT-NL), and 530 patients with symptomatic atherosclerotic diseases (SMART-Medea). Results The prevalence of major depressive disorder according to DSM-IV criteria was 14.1% (95% CI 11.0%-18.0%) in the stroke cohort, 5.4% (95% CI 3.8%-7.9%) in the symptomatic atherosclerotic diseases cohort and 12.9% (95% CI 11.1%-15.0%) in the general practice cohorts. Comparing depressed patients of the three cohorts demonstrated broadly similar symptom profiles, as well as comparable levels of individual symptom prevalence. However, the stroke patients suffered more severely from these symptoms than patients in the other populations. Conclusions The findings suggest that depression after stroke is not a different type of depression. This finding indicates that all depressive symptoms should be evaluated in stroke patients, including somatic symptoms.

Psychometric Properties of the Dutch Version of the Signs of Depression Scale

The early detection of depression after stroke is essential for the optimization of recovery in aphasic stroke patients. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Signs of Depression Scale (SODS), a non-language-based screening instrument. We conducted a cross-sectional study in a sample of 58 stroke patients in a rehabilitation center. The internal consistency and interrater reliability were good (α = .71 and intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] = .79). The pre-defined hypotheses confirmed the construct validity, and the correlation between the SODS and the Patient Health Questionnaire–9 (PHQ-9) was moderate (rb = .32). At a cutoff score of ≥1, the sensitivity was 0.80, and the specificity was 0.39. These findings indicate that the SODS is appropriate to screen for depressive symptoms and can be used by nurses to identify symptoms of depression in patients with aphasia who require further assessment.

Psychometric evaluation of the Signs of Depression Scale with a revised scoring mechanism in stroke patients with communicative impairment

Objectives: To investigate (1) the diagnostic value of the Signs of Depression Scale (SODS) in a Likert scale format and (2) whether the Likert scale improves the diagnostic value compared with the original dichotomous scale. Design: Cross-sectional multicentre study. Setting: One general and one university hospital in the Netherlands. Subjects: A total of 116 consecutive hospitalized stroke patients, of whom 53 were patients with communicative impairment. Main measures: Depression was diagnosed with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) administered to the patients’ relatives. The Barthel Index (BI) was used as an external validator. Results: The correlation between the CIDI and the SODS-Likert or the SODS was small (rb = 0.18), and the correlation between the Barthel Index and the SODS-Likert (rs = −0.30) or the SODS (rs = −0.33) was moderate. For both instruments, the discriminatory power for diagnosing depression when compared with the CIDI was best at a cut-off score of ⩾2. The internal consistency of the SODS-Likert was acceptable (α = 0.69) and slightly higher than that of the SODS (α = 0.57). The inter-rater reliability of the SODS-Likert and the SODS was acceptable (intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) 0.66 and ICC 0.80, respectively). The clinical utility was rated good. Conclusion: The diagnostic value of the SODS did not improve using a Likert scale format. However, the diagnostic value of the original dichotomous SODS is reasonable for the initial mood assessment of stroke patients with communicative impairment.

Probability of major depression diagnostic classification using semi-structured versus fully structured diagnostic interviews

BACKGROUND Different diagnostic interviews are used as reference standards for major depression classification in research. Semi-structured interviews involve clinical judgement, whereas fully structured interviews are completely scripted. The Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI), a brief fully structured interview, is also sometimes used. It is not known whether interview method is associated with probability of major depression classification.AimsTo evaluate the association between interview method and odds of major depression classification, controlling for depressive symptom scores and participant characteristics. METHOD Data collected for an individual participant data meta-analysis of Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) diagnostic accuracy were analysed and binomial generalised linear mixed models were fit. RESULTS A total of 17 158 participants (2287 with major depression) from 57 primary studies were analysed. Among fully structured interviews, odds of major depression were higher for the MINI compared with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) (odds ratio (OR) = 2.10; 95% CI = 1.15-3.87). Compared with semi-structured interviews, fully structured interviews (MINI excluded) were non-significantly more likely to classify participants with low-level depressive symptoms (PHQ-9 scores ≤6) as having major depression (OR = 3.13; 95% CI = 0.98-10.00), similarly likely for moderate-level symptoms (PHQ-9 scores 7-15) (OR = 0.96; 95% CI = 0.56-1.66) and significantly less likely for high-level symptoms (PHQ-9 scores ≥16) (OR = 0.50; 95% CI = 0.26-0.97). CONCLUSIONS The MINI may identify more people as depressed than the CIDI, and semi-structured and fully structured interviews may not be interchangeable methods, but these results should be replicated.Declaration of interestDrs Jetté and Patten declare that they received a grant, outside the submitted work, from the Hotchkiss Brain Institute, which was jointly funded by the Institute and Pfizer. Pfizer was the original sponsor of the development of the PHQ-9, which is now in the public domain. Dr Chan is a steering committee member or consultant of Astra Zeneca, Bayer, Lilly, MSD and Pfizer. She has received sponsorships and honorarium for giving lectures and providing consultancy and her affiliated institution has received research grants from these companies. Dr Hegerl declares that within the past 3 years, he was an advisory board member for Lundbeck, Servier and Otsuka Pharma; a consultant for Bayer Pharma; and a speaker for Medice Arzneimittel, Novartis, and Roche Pharma, all outside the submitted work. Dr Inagaki declares that he has received grants from Novartis Pharma, lecture fees from Pfizer, Mochida, Shionogi, Sumitomo Dainippon Pharma, Daiichi-Sankyo, Meiji Seika and Takeda, and royalties from Nippon Hyoron Sha, Nanzando, Seiwa Shoten, Igaku-shoin and Technomics, all outside of the submitted work. Dr Yamada reports personal fees from Meiji Seika Pharma Co., Ltd., MSD K.K., Asahi Kasei Pharma Corporation, Seishin Shobo, Seiwa Shoten Co., Ltd., Igaku-shoin Ltd., Chugai Igakusha and Sentan Igakusha, all outside the submitted work. All other authors declare no competing interests. No funder had any role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis and interpretation of the data; preparation, review or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.