Janos Ludwig

cGAS produces a 2′-5′-linked cyclic dinucleotide second messenger that activates STING

Detection of cytoplasmic DNA represents one of the most fundamental mechanisms of the innate immune system to sense the presence of microbial pathogens. Moreover, erroneous detection of endogenous DNA by the same sensing mechanisms has an important pathophysiological role in certain sterile inflammatory conditions. The endoplasmic-reticulum-resident protein STING is critically required for the initiation of type I interferon signalling upon detection of cytosolic DNA of both exogenous and endogenous origin. Next to its pivotal role in DNA sensing, STING also serves as a direct receptor for the detection of cyclic dinucleotides, which function as second messenger molecules in bacteria. DNA recognition, however, is triggered in an indirect fashion that depends on a recently characterized cytoplasmic nucleotidyl transferase, termed cGAMP synthase (cGAS), which upon interaction with DNA synthesizes a dinucleotide molecule that in turn binds to and activates STING. We here show in vivo and in vitro that the cGAS-catalysed reaction product is distinct from previously characterized cyclic dinucleotides. Using a combinatorial approach based on mass spectrometry, enzymatic digestion, NMR analysis and chemical synthesis we demonstrate that cGAS produces a cyclic GMP-AMP dinucleotide, which comprises a 2′-5′ and a 3′-5′ phosphodiester linkage >Gp(2′-5′)Ap(3′-5′)>. We found that the presence of this 2′-5′ linkage was required to exert potent activation of human STING. Moreover, we show that cGAS first catalyses the synthesis of a linear 2′-5′-linked dinucleotide, which is then subject to cGAS-dependent cyclization in a second step through a 3′-5′ phosphodiester linkage. This 13-membered ring structure defines a novel class of second messenger molecules, extending the family of 2′-5′-linked antiviral biomolecules.

Incorporation of Pseudouridine Into mRNA Yields Superior Nonimmunogenic Vector With Increased Translational Capacity and Biological Stability

In vitro-transcribed mRNAs encoding physiologically important proteins have considerable potential for therapeutic applications. However, in its present form, mRNA is unfeasible for clinical use because of its labile and immunogenic nature. Here, we investigated whether incorporation of naturally modified nucleotides into transcripts would confer enhanced biological properties to mRNA. We found that mRNAs containing pseudouridines have a higher translational capacity than unmodified mRNAs when tested in mammalian cells and lysates or administered intravenously into mice at 0.015-0.15 mg/kg doses. The delivered mRNA and the encoded protein could be detected in the spleen at 1, 4, and 24 hours after the injection, where both products were at significantly higher levels when pseudouridine-containing mRNA was administered. Even at higher doses, only the unmodified mRNA was immunogenic, inducing high serum levels of interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha). These findings indicate that nucleoside modification is an effective approach to enhance stability and translational capacity of mRNA while diminishing its immunogenicity in vivo. Improved properties conferred by pseudouridine make such mRNA a promising tool for both gene replacement and vaccination.

miRNA in situ hybridization in formaldehyde and EDC–fixed tissues

MicroRNAs are small regulatory RNAs with many biological functions and disease associations. We showed that in situ hybridization (ISH) using conventional formaldehyde fixation results in substantial microRNA loss from mouse tissue sections, which can be prevented by fixation with 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide that irreversibly immobilizes the microRNA at its 5′ phosphate. We determined optimal hybridization parameters for 130 locked nucleic acid probes by recording nucleic acid melting temperature during ISH.

Antiviral immunity via RIG-I-mediated recognition of RNA bearing 5'-diphosphates.

Mammalian cells possess mechanisms to detect and defend themselves from invading viruses. In the cytosol, the RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs), RIG-I (retinoic acid-inducible gene I; encoded by DDX58) and MDA5 (melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5; encoded by IFIH1) sense atypical RNAs associated with virus infection. Detection triggers a signalling cascade via the adaptor MAVS that culminates in the production of type I interferons (IFN-α and β; hereafter IFN), which are key antiviral cytokines. RIG-I and MDA5 are activated by distinct viral RNA structures and much evidence indicates that RIG-I responds to RNAs bearing a triphosphate (ppp) moiety in conjunction with a blunt-ended, base-paired region at the 5′-end (reviewed in refs 1, 2, 3). Here we show that RIG-I also mediates antiviral responses to RNAs bearing 5′-diphosphates (5′pp). Genomes from mammalian reoviruses with 5′pp termini, 5′pp-RNA isolated from yeast L-A virus, and base-paired 5′pp-RNAs made by in vitro transcription or chemical synthesis, all bind to RIG-I and serve as RIG-I agonists. Furthermore, a RIG-I-dependent response to 5′pp-RNA is essential for controlling reovirus infection in cultured cells and in mice. Thus, the minimal determinant for RIG-I recognition is a base-paired RNA with 5′pp. Such RNAs are found in some viruses but not in uninfected cells, indicating that recognition of 5′pp-RNA, like that of 5′ppp-RNA, acts as a powerful means of self/non-self discrimination by the innate immune system.

Structural and functional insights into 5′-ppp RNA pattern recognition by the innate immune receptor RIG-I

RIG-I is a cytosolic helicase that senses 5′-ppp RNA contained in negative-strand RNA viruses and triggers innate antiviral immune responses. Calorimetric binding studies established that the RIG-I C-terminal regulatory domain (CTD) binds to blunt-end double-stranded 5′-ppp RNA a factor of 17 more tightly than to its single-stranded counterpart. Here we report on the crystal structure of RIG-I CTD bound to both blunt ends of a self-complementary 5′-ppp dsRNA 12-mer, with interactions involving 5′-pp clearly visible in the complex. The structure, supported by mutation studies, defines how a lysine-rich basic cleft within the RIG-I CTD sequesters the observable 5′-pp of the bound RNA, with a stacked phenylalanine capping the terminal base pair. Key intermolecular interactions observed in the crystalline state are retained in the complex of 5′-ppp dsRNA 24-mer and full-length RIG-I under in vivo conditions, as evaluated from the impact of binding pocket RIG-I mutations and 2′-OCH3 RNA modifications on the interferon response.

Generating the optimal mRNA for therapy: HPLC purification eliminates immune activation and improves translation of nucleoside-modified, protein-encoding mRNA

In vitro-transcribed mRNA has great therapeutic potential to transiently express the encoded protein without the adverse effects of viral and DNA-based constructs. Mammalian cells, however, contain RNA sensors of the innate immune system that must be considered in the generation of therapeutic RNA. Incorporation of modified nucleosides both reduces innate immune activation and increases translation of mRNA, but residual induction of type I interferons (IFNs) and proinflammatory cytokines remains. We identify that contaminants, including double-stranded RNA, in nucleoside-modified in vitro-transcribed RNA are responsible for innate immune activation and their removal by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) results in mRNA that does not induce IFNs and inflammatory cytokines and is translated at 10- to 1000-fold greater levels in primary cells. Although unmodified mRNAs were translated significantly better following purification, they still induced high levels of cytokine secretion. HPLC purified nucleoside-modified mRNA is a powerful vector for applications ranging from ex vivo stem cell generation to in vivo gene therapy.

Sequence-specific activation of the DNA sensor cGAS by Y-form DNA structures as found in primary HIV-1 cDNA

Cytosolic DNA that emerges during infection with a retrovirus or DNA virus triggers antiviral type I interferon responses. So far, only double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) over 40 base pairs (bp) in length has been considered immunostimulatory. Here we found that unpaired DNA nucleotides flanking short base-paired DNA stretches, as in stem-loop structures of single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) derived from human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), activated the type I interferon–inducing DNA sensor cGAS in a sequence-dependent manner. DNA structures containing unpaired guanosines flanking short (12- to 20-bp) dsDNA (Y-form DNA) were highly stimulatory and specifically enhanced the enzymatic activity of cGAS. Furthermore, we found that primary HIV-1 reverse transcripts represented the predominant viral cytosolic DNA species during early infection of macrophages and that these ssDNAs were highly immunostimulatory. Collectively, our study identifies unpaired guanosines in Y-form DNA as a highly active, minimal cGAS recognition motif that enables detection of HIV-1 ssDNA.

Higher activation of TLR9 in plasmacytoid dendritic cells by microbial DNA compared with self-DNA based on CpG-specific recognition of phosphodiester DNA

TLR9 detects DNA in endolysosomal compartments of human B cells and PDC. Recently, the concept of the CpG motif specificity of TLR9‐mediated detection, specifically of natural phosphodiester DNA, has been challenged. Unlike in human B cells, CpG specificity of natural phosphodiester DNA recognition in human PDC has not been analyzed in the literature. Here, we found that the induction of IFN‐α and TNF‐α in human PDC by phosphodiester ODNs containing one or two CG dinucleotides was reduced to a lower level when the CG dinucleotides were methylated and was abolished if the CGs were switched to GCs. Consistent with a high frequency of unmethylated CG dinucleotides, bacterial DNA induced high levels of IFN‐α in PDC; IFN‐α was reduced but not abolished upon methylation of bacterial DNA. Mammalian DNA containing low numbers of CG dinucleotides, which are frequently methylated, induced IFN‐α in PDC consistently but on a much lower level than bacterial DNA. For activation of PDC, phosphodiester ODNs and genomic DNA strictly required complexation with cationic molecules such as the keratinocyte‐derived antimicrobial peptide LL37 or a scrambled derivative. In conclusion, we demonstrate that self‐DNA complexed to cationic molecules activate PDC and thus, indeed, may function as DAMPs; nevertheless, the preference of PDC for CpG containing DNA provides the basis for the discrimination of microbial from self‐DNA even if DNA is presented in the condensed form of a complex.

Dopamine D2 receptor ribozyme inhibits quinpirole-induced stereotypy in rats

The injection of a dopamine D(2) receptor hammerhead ribozyme (20 microg) once daily for 5 days into the nucleus accumbens of rats resulted in an inhibition of stereotyped sniffing and locomotor activation produced by the selective dopamine D(2) receptor agonist, quinpirole (0.4 mg kg(-1) s.c.). The results suggest that ribozymes may be useful in the study of in vivo gene function in the brain.

Instability of the Phosphodiester-Amide Interribonucleotide Bond in Neutral Aqueous Solution

Abstract Ap(NH2)dT was synthesized as a model compound for a study of the stability of the phosphodiester-amide interribonucleotide linkage in neutral aqueous solution, by photolyzing AnBnp(NH2)dT in anhydrous p-dioxane. Ap(NH2)dT proved to be unstable even under anhydrous conditions and could not be isolated. It was rapidly decomposed in neutral aqueous buffer solution, at 25°C, to give A>p, dT and ApdT. Three unstable intermediates of this decomposition, A>pNH2, ApNH2 and A>pdT were detected by 31P NMR. On the basis of the structure of the products, a mechanism is proposed for the decomposition.