Janusz Kruk

The earliest evidence of wheeled vehicles in Europe and the Near East

The earliest evidence of wheeled vehicles dates to the Funnel Beaker (TRB) culture in Europe and the Late Uruk period in the Near East. Results of excavations and 14 C determinations from Poland, Germany, Iraq, Syria and Turkey suggest that the appearance of wheeled vehicles was contemporary in Europe and the Near East.

Neolithic economy in central Europe

This article presents a survey of Neolithic economy, land use, trade, natural environment, and usage of plant and animal resources in central Europe, 5415–2240 B.C. (4500–1800 bc). Early, Middle A and B and Late Neolithic materials are summarized and compared. The earliest farmers expanded from southern Hungary and adjacent areas into central Europe over a relatively short time period, 100–200 years. They occupied areas only with good soils; thus probably hunters and gatherers continued to exist in many regions of central Europe. There is an increase in population and more upland areas are exploited for farming during the Middle Neolithic A and B periods. By the Middle Neolithic B period, low-level hierarchical or ranked societies appear in some regions of central Europe. The Late Neolithic may represent a modification of the mixed farming strategy observed during the earlier periods. Perhaps the herding of domestic animals became more important.

Utilization of cattle for traction during the later Neolithic in southeastern Poland

The site of Bronocice provides a valuable chance to explore aspects of economic changes in the later Neolithic of central Europe, thanks to its large sample of animal bones, and to a remarkable trace of haulage on a horn-core.

Middle Neolithic Continuity, Diversity, Innovations, and Greater Complexity, 5500/5000–3500/3000 BC

We have seen that there was considerable cultural homogeneity among Early Neolithic farming societies, especially in central Europe. In contrast, the Middle Neolithic is a period of increasing cultural diversity and complexity. In traditional typology, the Middle Neolithic and Chalcolithic (Copper Age) fall within this period. In Germany, Poland, England and Scandinavia, copper artifacts, mainly ornaments, are rare at most sites, thus it is difficult to talk about the so-called Copper Age. In Bulgaria, the Copper Age begins around 4800-4700 BC and in Hungary at 4600-4500 BC.

Late Neolithic/Late Copper Age 3500–2200 BC

By the beginning of the Late Neolithic/Late Copper Age, most of Europe was occupied by farmers. Only the coniferous and tundra areas of northern Europe remained inhabited by hunters and gatherers. In some areas politically complex societies already existed. However, there is a discontinuity in some aspects of the archaeological record after 3500–3000 years of farming societies in Europe; perhaps this reflects crises or major changes at the end of the “Old Neolithic” or “Old Europe.” Over the years archaeologists have concentrated on origin problems: farming, political complexity, or this or that culture. The endings of things have received less attention. In southeastern Europe, for example, anthropomorphic clay figurines disappeared, large settlements were abandoned, many were destroyed by fire, and burial mounds appeared. This affected northern Bulgaria and southern Romania first, around 3800 BC.

Middle Neolithic/Early Copper Age, Continuity, Diversity, and Greater Complexity, 5500/5000–3500 BC

We have seen that there was considerable cultural homogeneity among Early Neolithic farming societies, especially in central Europe. In contrast, the Middle Neolithic/Early Copper Age is a period of increasing cultural diversity and complexity. In traditional typology, the Middle Neolithic and Chalcolithic (Copper Age) fall within this period. In Germany, Poland, England, and Scandinavia, copper artifacts, mainly ornaments, are rare at most sites, thus it is difficult to talk about the so-called Copper Age. In Bulgaria, the Copper Age begins around 4800–4700 BC and in Hungary at 4600–4500 BC.