Jasmine Viger-Gravel

Signal enhancement in solid-state NMR of quadrupolar nuclei

Recent progress in the development and application of signal enhancement methods for NMR of quadrupolar nuclei in solids is presented. First, various pulse schemes for manipulating the populations of the satellite transitions in order to increase the signal of the central transition (CT) in stationary and rotating solids are evaluated (e.g., double-frequency sweeps, hyperbolic secant pulses). Second, the utility of the quadrupolar Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill (QCPMG) and WURST-QCPMG pulse sequences for the rapid and efficient acquisition of particularly broad CT powder patterns is discussed. Third, less frequently used experiments involving polarization transfer from abundant nuclear spins (cross-polarization) or from unpaired electrons (dynamic nuclear polarization) are assessed in the context of recent examples. Advantages and disadvantages of particular enhancement schemes are highlighted and an outlook on possible future directions for the signal enhancement of quadrupolar nuclei in solids is offered.

Direct Investigation of Halogen Bonds by Solid-State Multinuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy and Molecular Orbital Analysis

Noncovalent interactions play a ubiquitous role in the structure, stability, and reactivity of a wide range of molecular and ionic cocrystals, pharmaceuticals, materials, and biomolecules. The halogen bond continues to be the focus of much attention, due in part to its strength and unique directionality. Here, we report a multifaceted experimental and computational study of halogen bonds in the solid state. A series of cocrystals of three different diiodobenzene molecules and various onium halide (Cl(-) or Br(-)) salts, designed to exhibit moderately strong halogen bonds (C-I···X(-)) in the absence of competing hydrogen bonds, has been prepared and characterized by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Interestingly, a wide range of geometries about the halide anion are observed. (35/37)Cl and (79/81)Br solid-state NMR spectroscopy is applied to characterize the nuclear quadrupolar coupling constants (C(Q)) and asymmetry parameters (η(Q)) for the halogen-bonded anions at the center of bonding environments ranging from approximately linear to distorted square planar to octahedral. The relationship between the halogen bond environment and the quadrupolar parameters is elucidated through a natural localized molecular orbital (NLMO) analysis in the framework of density functional theory (DFT). These calculations reveal that the lone pair type orbitals on the halogen-bonded anion govern the magnitude and orientation of the quadrupolar tensor as the geometry about the anion is systematically altered. In -C-I···X(-)···I-C- environments, the value of η(Q) is well-correlated to the I···X(-)···I angle. (13)C NMR and DFT calculations show a correlation between chemical shifts and halogen bond strength (through the C-I distance) in o-diiodotetrafluorobenzene cocrystals. Overall, this work provides a chemically intuitive understanding of the connection between the geometry and electronic structure of halogen bonds and various NMR parameters with the aid of NLMO analysis.

Correlation between 13C chemical shifts and the halogen bonding environment in a series of solid para-diiodotetrafluorobenzene complexes

The co-crystallization of para-diiodotetrafluorobenzene (p-DITFB) with ammonium and phosphonium halide (Cl− and Br−) salts afforded four new compounds, [(n-Bu4PCl)(p-DITFB)] (2), [(n-Bu4NBr)(p-DITFB)] (3), [(n-Bu4PBr)(p-DITFB)] (4), and [(EtPh3PBr)2(p-DITFB)] (5), that exhibit moderately strong halogen bonding interactions. They have been characterized by single-crystal X-ray diffraction and 13C solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (SSNMR) spectroscopy in magnetic fields of 9.4 and 21.1 T. The X-ray crystallography shows that in 2, 3, and 4, the halide is ditopic and forms long polymeric zigzag chains, whereas the bromide in 5 forms a dianionic species when involved in halogen bonding interactions. The NMR data, when combined with zeroth-order regular approximation density functional theory (ZORA–DFT) calculations, provide insight into the relationship between the strength of the halogen bond and the 13C isotropic chemical shift. When the carbon–iodine bond length increases, the 13C chemical shift also increases. Further insights into the relationship between halogen bonding and the 13C chemical shifts are obtained through additional systematic ZORA–DFT calculations as a function of the halogen bonding environment.

Probing halogen bonds with solid-state NMR spectroscopy: observation and interpretation of J(77Se,31P) coupling in halogen-bonded PSe⋯I motifs

Halogen bonds constitute an important and topical class of non-covalent interaction. We report a combined X-ray diffraction, multinuclear (77Se, 31P, 13C) solid-state magnetic resonance, and computational study of a series of crystalline triphenylphosphine selenide–iodoperfluorobenzene complexes which feature PSe⋯I–C halogen bonds. Selenium-77 chemical shifts increase due to halogen bonding with iodine and correlate with the PSe distance, which in turn correlates with the strength of the halogen bond. J(77Se,31P) coupling constants increase in magnitude as the halogen bond weakens. This observation is understood via a natural localized molecular orbital (NLMO) DFT approach which shows that contributions from the selenium lone pair orbital tend to dominate both the magnitude and trends in J(77Se,31P), with the selenium–phosphorus bonding orbital being the second largest contributor. This work suggests that J couplings measured via NMR spectroscopy may play an important role in the characterization of halogen bonds, in clear analogy with their role in the characterization of hydrogen bonds.

Solid-State NMR Study of Halogen-Bonded Adducts

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy offers unique insights into halogen bonds. NMR parameters such as chemical shifts, quadrupolar coupling constants, J coupling constants, and dipolar coupling constants are in principle sensitive to the formation and local structure of a halogen bond. Carrying out NMR experiments on halogen-bonded adducts in the solid state may provide several advantages over solution studies including (1) the absence of solvent which can interact with halogen bond donor sites and complicate spectral interpretation, (2) the lack of a need for single crystals or even long-range crystalline order, and (3) the potential to measure complete NMR interaction tensors rather than simply their isotropic values. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the NMR interactions and experiments which are relevant to the study of nuclei which are often found in halogen bonds (RX···Y) including (13)C, (35/37)Cl, (79/81)Br, (127)I, (77)Se, and (14/15)N. Experimental examples based on iodoperfluorobenzene halides, bis(trimethylammonium)alkane diiodide, and selenocyanate complexes, as well as haloanilinium halides, are discussed. Of particular interest is the sensitivity of the isotropic chemical shifts, the chemical shift tensor spans, and the halide nuclear electric quadrupolar coupling tensors to the halogen bond geometry in such compounds. Technical limitations associated with the NMR spectroscopy of covalently-bonded halogens are underlined.

The structure and binding mode of citrate in the stabilization of gold nanoparticles

Elucidating the binding mode of carboxylate-containing ligands to gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) is crucial to understand their stabilizing role. A detailed picture of the three-dimensional structure and coordination modes of citrate, acetate, succinate and glutarate to AuNPs is obtained by 13C and 23Na solid-state NMR in combination with computational modelling and electron microscopy. The binding between the carboxylates and the AuNP surface is found to occur in three different modes. These three modes are simultaneously present at low citrate to gold ratios, while a monocarboxylate monodentate (1κO1) mode is favoured at high citrate:gold ratios. The surface AuNP atoms are found to be predominantly in the zero oxidation state after citrate coordination, although trace amounts of Auδ+ are observed. 23Na NMR experiments show that Na+ ions are present near the gold surface, indicating that carboxylate binding occurs as a 2e- L-type interaction for each oxygen atom involved. This approach has broad potential to probe the binding of a variety of ligands to metal nanoparticles.

Determining the Surface Structure of Silicated Alumina Catalysts via Isotopic Enrichment and Dynamic Nuclear Polarization Surface-Enhanced NMR Spectroscopy

Isotopic enrichment of 29Si and DNP-enhanced NMR spectroscopy are combined to determine the detailed surface structure of a silicated alumina catalyst. The significant sensitivity enhancement provided by DNP is vital to the acquisition of multinuclear and multidimensional experiments that provide information on the atomic-level structure of the species present at the surface. Isotopic enrichment not only facilitates spectral acquisition, particularly given the low (1.5 wt %) Si loading, but also enables spectra with higher resolution than those acquired using DNP to be obtained. The unexpected similarity of conventional, CP, and DNP NMR spectra is attributed to the presence of adventitious surface water that forms a sufficiently dense 1H network at the silica surface so as to mediate efficient polarization transfer to all Si species regardless of their chemical nature. Spectra reveal the presence of Si–O–Si linkages at the surface (identified as Q4(3Al)–Q4(3Al)) and confirm that the anchoring of the surface overlayer with the alumina occurs through AlIV and AlV species only. This suggests the presence of Q3/Q4 Si at the surface affects the neighboring Al species, modifying the surface structure and making it less likely AlVI environments are in close spatial proximity. In contrast, Q1/Q2 species, bonded to the surface by fewer covalent bonds, have less of an effect on the surface, and more AlVI species are consequently found nearby. The combination of isotropic enrichment and DNP provides a definitive and fully quantitative description of the Si-modified alumina surface, and we demonstrate that almost one-third of the silicon at the surface is connected to another Si species, even at the low level of coverage used, lowering the propensity for the formation of Brønsted acid sites. This suggests that a variation in the synthetic procedure might be required to obtain a more even coverage for optimum performance. The work here will allow for more rigorous future investigations of structure–function relationships in these complex materials.

Frozen Acrylamide Gels as Dynamic Nuclear Polarization Matrices

Aqueous acrylamide gels can be used to provide dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) NMR signal enhancements of around 200 at 9.4 T and 100 K. The enhancements are shown to increase with crosslinker concentration and low concentrations of the AMUPol biradical. This DNP matrix can be used in situations where conventional incipient wetness methods fail, such as to obtain DNP surface enhanced NMR spectra from inorganic nanoparticles. In particular, we obtain 113 Cd spectra from CdTe-COOH NPs in minutes. The spectra clearly indicate a highly disordered cadmium-rich surface.

Structure of Lipid Nanoparticles Containing siRNA or mRNA by Dynamic Nuclear Polarization-Enhanced NMR Spectroscopy

Here, we show how dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) NMR spectroscopy experiments permit the atomic level structural characterization of loaded and empty lipid nanoparticles (LNPs). The LNPs used here were synthesized by the microfluidic mixing technique and are composed of ionizable cationic lipid (DLin-MC3-DMA), a phospholipid (distearoylphosphatidylcholine, DSPC), cholesterol, and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) (dimyristoyl phosphatidyl ethanolamine (DMPE)-PEG 2000), as well as encapsulated cargoes that are either phosphorothioated siRNA (50 or 100%) or mRNA. We show that LNPs form physically stable complexes with bioactive drug siRNA for a period of 94 days. Relayed DNP experiments are performed to study 1H-1H spin diffusion and to determine the spatial location of the various components of the LNP by studying the average enhancement factors as a function of polarization time. We observe a striking feature of LNPs in the presence and in the absence of encapsulating siRNA or mRNA by comparing our experimental results to numerical spin-diffusion modeling. We observe that LNPs form a layered structure, and we detect that DSPC and DMPE-PEG 2000 lipids form a surface rich layer in the presence (or absence) of the cargoes and that the cholesterol and ionizable cationic lipid are embedded in the core. Furthermore, relayed DNP 31P solid-state NMR experiments allow the location of the cargo encapsulated in the LNPs to be determined. On the basis of the results, we propose a new structural model for the LNPs that features a homogeneous core with a tendency for layering of DSPC and DMPE-PEG at the surface.

Core–Shell Structure of Organic Crystalline Nanoparticles Determined by Relayed Dynamic Nuclear Polarization NMR

The structure of crystalline nanoparticles (CNPs) is determined using dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) enhanced NMR spectroscopy experiments. The CNPs are composed of a crystalline core containing an active pharmaceutical ingredient (compound P), coated with a layer of PEG (DSPE-PEG 5000) located at the crystal surface, in a D2O suspension. Relayed DNP experiments are performed to study 1H-1H spin diffusion and to determine the size of the crystalline core as well as the thickness of the PEG overlayer. This is achieved through selective doping to create a heterogeneous system in which the D2O contains glycerol and organic radicals, which act as polarization sources, and the CNPs are exempt of radical molecules. We observe features that are characteristic of a core-shell system: high and constant DNP enhancement for components located in the surrounding radical solution, short build-up times for the PEG layer, and longer build-up times and time dependent enhancements for compound P. By comparing numerical simulations and experimental data, we propose a structural model for the CNPs with a core-shell organization and a high affinity between the radical and the PEG molecules.