Jason J. Saleem

Exploring Barriers and Facilitators to the Use of Computerized Clinical Reminders

OBJECTIVE Evidence-based practices in preventive care and chronic disease management are inconsistently implemented. Computerized clinical reminders (CRs) can improve compliance with these practices in outpatient settings. However, since clinician adherence to CR recommendations is quite variable and declines over time, we conducted observations to determine barriers and facilitators to the effective use of CRs. DESIGN We conducted an observational study of nurses and providers interacting with CRs in outpatient primary care clinics for two days in each of four geographically distributed Veterans Administration (VA) medical centers. MEASUREMENTS Three observers recorded interactions of 35 nurses and 55 physicians and mid-level practitioners with the CRs, which function as part of an electronic medical record. Field notes were typed, coded in a spreadsheet, and then sorted into logical categories. We then integrated findings across observations into meaningful patterns and abstracted the data into themes, such as recurrent strategies. Several of these themes translated directly to barriers and facilitators to effective CR use. RESULTS Optimally using the CR system for its intended purpose was impeded by (1) lack of coordination between nurses and providers; (2) using the reminders while not with the patient, impairing data acquisition and/or implementation of recommended actions; (3) workload; (4) lack of CR flexibility; and (5) poor interface usability. Facilitators included (1) limiting the number of reminders at a site; (2) strategic location of the computer workstations; (3) integration of reminders into workflow; and (4) the ability to document system problems and receive prompt administrator feedback. CONCLUSION We identified barriers that might explain some of the variability in the use of CRs. Although these barriers may be difficult to overcome, some strategies may increase user acceptance and therefore the effectiveness of the CRs. These include explicitly assigning responsibility for each CR to nurses or providers, improving visibility of positive results from CRs in the electronic medical record, creating a feedback mechanism about CR use, and limiting the overall number of CRs.

The science of human factors: separating fact from fiction

Background Interest in human factors has increased across healthcare communities and institutions as the value of human centred design in healthcare becomes increasingly clear. However, as human factors is becoming more prominent, there is growing evidence of confusion about human factors science, both anecdotally and in scientific literature. Some of the misconceptions about human factors may inadvertently create missed opportunities for healthcare improvement. Methods The objective of this article is to describe the scientific discipline of human factors and provide common ground for partnerships between healthcare and human factors communities. Results The primary goal of human factors science is to promote efficiency, safety and effectiveness by improving the design of technologies, processes and work systems. As described in this article, human factors also provides insight on when training is likely (or unlikely) to be effective for improving patient safety. Finally, we outline human factors specialty areas that may be particularly relevant for improving healthcare delivery and provide examples to demonstrate their value. Conclusions The human factors concepts presented in this article may foster interdisciplinary collaborations to yield new, sustainable solutions for healthcare quality and patient safety.

Embracing a Health Services Research Perspective on Personal Health Records: Lessons Learned from the VA My HealtheVet System

BackgroundPersonal health records (PHRs) are designed to help people manage information about their health. Over the past decade, there has been a proliferation of PHRs, but research regarding their effects on clinical, behavioral, and financial outcomes remains limited. The potential for PHRs to facilitate patient-centered care and health system transformation underscores the importance of embracing a broader perspective on PHR research.ObjectiveDrawing from the experiences of VA staff to evaluate the My HealtheVet (MHV) PHR, this article advocates for a health services research perspective on the study of PHR systems.MethodsWe describe an organizing framework and research agenda, and offer insights that have emerged from our ongoing efforts regarding the design of PHR-related studies, the need to address PHR data ownership and consent, and the promotion of effective PHR research collaborations.ConclusionThese lessons are applicable to other PHR systems and the conduct of PHR research across different organizational contexts.

Applying human factors principles to alert design increases efficiency and reduces prescribing errors in a scenario-based simulation.

OBJECTIVE To apply human factors engineering principles to improve alert interface design. We hypothesized that incorporating human factors principles into alerts would improve usability, reduce workload for prescribers, and reduce prescribing errors. MATERIALS AND METHODS We performed a scenario-based simulation study using a counterbalanced, crossover design with 20 Veterans Affairs prescribers to compare original versus redesigned alerts. We redesigned drug-allergy, drug-drug interaction, and drug-disease alerts based upon human factors principles. We assessed usability (learnability of redesign, efficiency, satisfaction, and usability errors), perceived workload, and prescribing errors. RESULTS Although prescribers received no training on the design changes, prescribers were able to resolve redesigned alerts more efficiently (median (IQR): 56 (47) s) compared to the original alerts (85 (71) s; p=0.015). In addition, prescribers rated redesigned alerts significantly higher than original alerts across several dimensions of satisfaction. Redesigned alerts led to a modest but significant reduction in workload (p=0.042) and significantly reduced the number of prescribing errors per prescriber (median (range): 2 (1-5) compared to original alerts: 4 (1-7); p=0.024). DISCUSSION Aspects of the redesigned alerts that likely contributed to better prescribing include design modifications that reduced usability-related errors, providing clinical data closer to the point of decision, and displaying alert text in a tabular format. Displaying alert text in a tabular format may help prescribers extract information quickly and thereby increase responsiveness to alerts. CONCLUSIONS This simulation study provides evidence that applying human factors design principles to medication alerts can improve usability and prescribing outcomes.

Implementation of health information technology in Veterans Health Administration to support transformational change: telehealth and personal health records.

The Institute of Medicine report, Crossing the Quality Chasm, called for significant improvements in 6 elements of healthcare performance: safety, effectiveness, patient centeredness, timeliness, efficiency, and equity. To meet the changing care needs of older veterans, many of whom are trying to manage the complexities of their chronic diseases in their own homes, the Veterans Health Administration (VHA) has promoted many of the Institute of Medicine elements by implementing health information technology (health IT), such as telehealth and a personal health record (PHR). To that end, approximately 5 years ago, VHA created the Office of Care Coordination and in particular a patient-centered Care Coordination/Home Telehealth (CCHT) program, which uses telehealth technologies (eg, messaging devices) to coordinate care directly from a patients home to help self-manage their chronic diseases. VHA has also developed a PHR, My HealtheVet, which is a secure web-based portal that provides veterans the capability to access and manage health information. This article discusses the mechanisms by which these forms of health IT have been implemented to improve access to care and improve health. For telehealth, we present the outcomes from some of the published literature. For PHRs, we outline what is known to date and future research directions. The article also examines some structural, policy-related, and organizational barriers to health IT implementation and offers suggestions for future research.

You and me and the computer makes three: variations in exam room use of the electronic health record.

Challenges persist on how to effectively integrate the electronic health record (EHR) into patient visits and clinical workflow, while maintaining patient-centered care. Our goal was to identify variations in, barriers to, and facilitators of the use of the US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) EHR in ambulatory care workflow in order better to understand how to integrate the EHR into clinical work. We observed and interviewed 20 ambulatory care providers across three geographically distinct VA medical centers. Analysis revealed several variations in, associated barriers to, and facilitators of EHR use corresponding to different units of analysis: computer interface, team coordination/workflow, and organizational. We discuss our findings in the context of different units of analysis and connect variations in EHR use to various barriers and facilitators. Findings from this study may help inform the design of the next generation of EHRs for the VA and other healthcare systems.

Paper- and computer-based workarounds to electronic health record use at three benchmark institutions

BACKGROUND Healthcare professionals develop workarounds rather than using electronic health record (EHR) systems. Understanding the reasons for workarounds is important to facilitate user-centered design and alignment between work context and available health information technology tools. OBJECTIVE To examine both paper- and computer-based workarounds to the use of EHR systems in three benchmark institutions. METHODS Qualitative data were collected in 11 primary care outpatient clinics across three healthcare institutions. Data collection methods included direct observation and opportunistic questions. In total, 120 clinic staff and providers and 118 patients were observed. All data were analyzed using previously developed workaround categories and examined for potential new categories. Additionally, workarounds were coded as either paper- or computer-based. RESULTS Findings corresponded to 10 of 11 workaround categories identified in previous research. All 10 of these categories applied to paper-based workarounds; five categories also applied to computer-based workarounds. One new category, no correct path (eg, a desired option did not exist in the computer interface, precipitating a workaround), was identified for computer-based workarounds. The most consistent reasons for workarounds across the three institutions were efficiency, memory, and awareness. CONCLUSIONS Consistent workarounds across institutions suggest common challenges in outpatient clinical settings and failures to accommodate these challenges in EHR design. An examination of workarounds provides insight into how providers adapt to limiting EHR systems. Part of the design process for computer interfaces should include user-centered methods particular to providers and healthcare settings to ensure uptake and usability.

Context, culture and (non-verbal) communication affect handover quality

Background Transfers of care, also known as handovers, remain a substantial patient safety risk. Although research on handovers has been done since the 1980s, the science is incomplete. Surprisingly few interventions have been rigorously evaluated and, of those that have, few have resulted in long-term positive change. Researchers, both in medicine and other high reliability industries, agree that face-to-face handovers are the most reliable. It is not clear, however, what the term face-to-face means in actual practice. Objectives We studied the use of non-verbal behaviours, including gesture, posture, bodily orientation, facial expression, eye contact and physical distance, in the delivery of information during face-to-face handovers. Methods To address this question and study the role of non-verbal behaviour on the quality and accuracy of handovers, we videotaped 52 nursing, medicine and surgery handovers covering 238 patients. Videotapes were analysed using immersion/crystallisation methods of qualitative data analysis. A team of six researchers met weekly for 18 months to view videos together using a consensus-building approach. Consensus was achieved on verbal, non-verbal, and physical themes and patterns observed in the data. Results We observed four patterns of non-verbal behaviour (NVB) during handovers: (1) joint focus of attention; (2) ‘the poker hand’; (3) parallel play and (4) kerbside consultation. In terms of safety, joint focus of attention was deemed to have the best potential for high quality and reliability; however, it occurred infrequently, creating opportunities for education and improvement. Conclusions Attention to patterns of NVB in face-to-face handovers coupled with education and practice can improve quality and reliability.

The next-generation electronic health record: perspectives of key leaders from the US Department of Veterans Affairs

The rapid change in healthcare has focused attention on the necessary development of a next-generation electronic health record (EHR) to support system transformation and more effective patient-centered care. The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) is developing plans for the next-generation EHR to support improved care delivery for veterans. To understand the needs for a next-generation EHR, we interviewed 14 VA operational, clinical and informatics leaders for their vision about system needs. Leaders consistently identified priorities for development in the areas of cognitive support, information synthesis, teamwork and communication, interoperability, data availability, usability, customization, and information management. The need to reconcile different EHR initiatives currently underway in the VA, as well as opportunities for data sharing, will be critical for continued progress. These findings may support the VAs effort for evolutionary change to its information system and draw attention to necessary research and development for a next-generation information system and EHR nationally.

Electronic health information in use: Characteristics that support employee workflow and patient care

The aim of this investigation was to assess helpful and challenging aspects of electronic health information with respect to clinical workflow and identify a set of characteristics that support patient care processes. We conducted 20 semi-structured interviews at a Veterans Affairs Medical Center, with a fully implemented electronic health record (EHR), and elicited positive and negative examples of how information technology (IT) affects the work of healthcare employees. Responses naturally shed light on information characteristics that aid work processes. We performed a secondary analysis on interview data and inductively identified characteristics of electronic information that support healthcare workflow. Participants provided 199 examples of how electronic information affects workflow. Seventeen characteristics emerged along with four primary domains: trustworthy and reliable; ubiquitous; effectively displayed; and adaptable to work demands. Each characteristic may be used to help evaluate health information technology pre- and post-implementation. Results provide several strategies to improve EHR design and implementation to better support healthcare workflow.