Jason M. Tucker-Schwartz

In vivo photothermal optical coherence tomography of gold nanorod contrast agents

Photothermal optical coherence tomography (PT-OCT) is a potentially powerful tool for molecular imaging. Here, we characterize PT-OCT imaging of gold nanorod (GNR) contrast agents in phantoms, and we apply these techniques for in vivo GNR imaging. The PT-OCT signal was compared to the bio-heat equation in phantoms, and in vivo PT-OCT images were acquired from subcutaneous 400 pM GNR Matrigel injections into mice. Experiments revealed that PT-OCT signals varied as predicted by the bio-heat equation, with significant PT-OCT signal increases at 7.5 pM GNR compared to a scattering control (p < 0.01) while imaging in common path configuration. In vivo PT-OCT images demonstrated an appreciable increase in signal in the presence of GNRs compared to controls. Additionally, in vivo PT-OCT GNR signals were spatially distinct from blood vessels imaged with Doppler OCT. We anticipate that the demonstrated in vivo PT-OCT sensitivity to GNR contrast agents is sufficient to image molecular expression in vivo. Therefore, this work demonstrates the translation of PT-OCT to in vivo imaging and represents the next step towards its use as an in vivo molecular imaging tool.

Dual-modality photothermal optical coherence tomography and magnetic-resonance imaging of carbon nanotubes

We demonstrate polyethylene-glycol-coated single-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) as contrast agents for both photothermal optical coherence tomography (OCT) and magnetic-resonance imaging (MRI). Photothermal OCT was accomplished with a spectral domain OCT system with an amplitude-modulated 750 nm pump beam using 10 mW of power, and T(2) MRI was achieved with a 4.7 T animal system. Photothermal OCT and T(2) MRI achieved sensitivities of nanomolar concentrations to CNTs dispersed in amine-terminated polyethylene glycol, thus establishing the potential for dual-modality molecular imaging with CNTs.

In vivo imaging of nanoparticle delivery and tumor microvasculature with multimodal optical coherence tomography

Current imaging techniques capable of tracking nanoparticles in vivo supply either a large field of view or cellular resolution, but not both. Here, we demonstrate a multimodality imaging platform of optical coherence tomography (OCT) techniques for high resolution, wide field of view in vivo imaging of nanoparticles. This platform includes the first in vivo images of nanoparticle pharmacokinetics acquired with photothermal OCT (PTOCT), along with overlaying images of microvascular and tissue morphology. Gold nanorods (51.8 ± 8.1 nm by 15.2 ± 3.3 nm) were intravenously injected into mice, and their accumulation into mammary tumors was non-invasively imaged in vivo in three dimensions over 24 hours using PTOCT. Spatial frequency analysis of PTOCT images indicated that gold nanorods reached peak distribution throughout the tumors by 16 hours, and remained well-dispersed up to 24 hours post-injection. In contrast, the overall accumulation of gold nanorods within the tumors peaked around 16 hours post-injection. The accumulation of gold nanorods within the tumors was validated post-mortem with multiphoton microscopy. This shows the utility of PTOCT as part of a powerful multimodality imaging platform for the development of nanomedicines and drug delivery technologies.

Quantitative optical imaging of vascular response in vivo in a model of peripheral arterial disease

The mouse hind limb ischemia (HLI) model is well established for studying collateral vessel formation and testing therapies for peripheral arterial disease, but there is a lack of quantitative techniques for intravitally analyzing blood vessel structure and function. To address this need, non-invasive, quantitative optical imaging techniques were developed to assess the time-course of recovery in the mouse HLI model. Hyperspectral imaging and optical coherence tomography (OCT) were used to non-invasively image hemoglobin oxygen saturation and microvessel morphology plus blood flow, respectively, in the anesthetized mouse after induction of HLI. Hyperspectral imaging detected significant increases in hemoglobin saturation in the ischemic paw as early as 3 days after femoral artery ligation (P < 0.01), and significant increases in distal blood flow were first detected with OCT 14 days postsurgery (P < 0.01). Intravital OCT images of the adductor muscle vasculature revealed corkscrew collateral vessels characteristic of the arteriogenic response to HLI. The hyperspectral imaging and OCT data significantly correlated with each other and with laser Doppler perfusion imaging (LDPI) and tissue oxygenation sensor data (P < 0.01). However, OCT measurements acquired depth-resolved information and revealed more sustained flow deficits following surgery that may be masked by more superficial measurements (LDPI, hyperspectral imaging). Therefore, intravital OCT may provide a robust biomarker for the late stages of ischemic limb recovery. This work validates non-invasive acquisition of both functional and morphological data with hyperspectral imaging and OCT. Together, these techniques provide cardiovascular researchers an unprecedented and comprehensive view of the temporal dynamics of HLI recovery in living mice.

Transcutaneous regional venous oximetry: a feasibility study.

BACKGROUND: The arterial pulse oximeter, which was introduced clinically in the 1970s, is a convenient, useful, and now ubiquitous anesthesia monitor. Unfortunately, although percent saturation of arterial hemoglobin is, along with cardiac output and concentration of hemoglobin, one of 3 components of oxygen delivery, it does not indicate whether oxygen delivery to a region of interest is adequate. Knowledge of peripheral or regional venous oxygen saturation (SxvO2) may lend insight into analysis of regional oxygen supply and demand. Our goal was to assess the suitability of 3 anatomic sites for the transcutaneous assessment of SxvO2. METHODS: Using a Nonin reflectance oximetry probe (provided by Nonin Medical, Plymouth, MN) placed directly over the antecubital, external jugular, and internal jugular veins in 10 volunteers, we measured the absorbance of red and infrared electromagnetic radiation. We performed fast Fourier transformation on these absorbance waveforms. The ratio of pulsatile absorbance of red and infrared radiation at different frequencies was compared with nonpulsatile absorption, and SxvO2 was calculated based on previously derived empiric correlations. RESULTS: Estimates of transcutaneous SxvO2 ranged from 41% to 97%, with mean values of 75%, 80%, and 80% at the antecubital, external jugular, and internal jugular veins, respectively. Overall, 93% of predicted SxvO2 values were <90%. CONCLUSION: Validation and subsequent improvement of this technique requires correlation of our results with venous blood gas measurements, followed by incorporation of technologies from related fields in oximetry (fetal reflectance oximetry and near-infrared spectroscopy), as well as the development of advanced signal processing techniques.

Photothermal optical lock-in optical coherence tomography for in vivo imaging.

Photothermal OCT (PTOCT) provides high sensitivity to molecular targets in tissue, and occupies a spatial imaging regime that is attractive for small animal imaging. However, current implementations of PTOCT require extensive temporal sampling, resulting in slow frame rates and a large data burden that limit its in vivo utility. To address these limitations, we have implemented optical lock-in techniques for photothermal optical lock-in OCT (poli-OCT), and demonstrated the in vivo imaging capabilities of this approach. The poli-OCT signal was assessed in tissue-mimicking phantoms containing indocyanine green (ICG), an FDA approved small molecule that has not been previously imaged in vivo with PTOCT. Then, the effects of in vivo blood flow and motion artifact were assessed and attenuated, and in vivo poli-OCT was demonstrated with both ICG and gold nanorods as contrast agents. Experiments revealed that poli-OCT signals agreed with optical lock-in theory and the bio-heat equation, and the system exhibited shot noise limited performance. In phantoms containing biologically relevant concentrations of ICG (1 µg/ml), the poli-OCT signal was significantly greater than control phantoms (p<0.05), demonstrating sensitivity to small molecules. Finally, in vivo poli-OCT of ICG identified the lymphatic vessels in a mouse ear, and also identified low concentrations (200 pM) of gold nanorods in subcutaneous injections at frame rates ten times faster than previously reported. This work illustrates that future in vivo molecular imaging studies could benefit from the improved acquisition and analysis times enabled by poli-OCT.

Depth-resolved analytical model and correction algorithm for photothermal optical coherence tomography.

Photothermal OCT (PT-OCT) is an emerging molecular imaging technique that occupies a spatial imaging regime between microscopy and whole body imaging. PT-OCT would benefit from a theoretical model to optimize imaging parameters and test image processing algorithms. We propose the first analytical PT-OCT model to replicate an experimental A-scan in homogeneous and layered samples. We also propose the PT-CLEAN algorithm to reduce phase-accumulation and shadowing, two artifacts found in PT-OCT images, and demonstrate it on phantoms and in vivo mouse tumors.

An analytical model of photothermal optical coherence tomography to predict signal intensity with dept

We present the first analytical model of photothermal optical coherence tomography to replicate an experimental A scan. We also present the PT-CLEAN algorithm to remove two imaging artefacts: phase accumulation and shadowing.

In vivo imaging of gold nanorod contrast agents using photothermal optical coherence tomography

Photothermal optical coherence tomography (PT-OCT) has the potential to increase the molecular specificity of OCT for in vivo pre-clinical studies of cancer, in order to better understand drug uptake and treatment response. However, the use of PT-OCT to image contrast agents in vivo has yet to be demonstrated. Here, we characterize PT-OCT imaging of gold nanorod (GNR) contrast agents, and we further apply these techniques for in vivo imaging. The PT-OCT signal was characterized and compared to a numerical model of the bio-heat equation with respect to varying photothermal chop frequency, photothermal laser power, OCT image reflectivity, and concentration of GNRs. PT-OCT images were taken of GNR+ and GNR- solid agarose phantoms in capillary tubes, and 400 pM GNR matrigel injections into a mouse ear. Experimental PT-OCT data varied as predicted with closed form models of the bio-heat equation. Increasing the concentration of GNRs caused a linear increase in the PT-OCT signal, with GNR sensitivity as low as 7.5 pM compared to a scattering control (p<0.01). PT-OCT images in capillary tubes and the live mouse ear demonstrated an appreciable increase in signal in the presence of GNRs compared to controls. The demonstrated in vivo PT-OCT capabilities using GNR contrast agents is sufficient to image molecular expression, based on published molecular imaging studies employing GNR contrast agents in vivo. Therefore, this work demonstrates an important transition of PT-OCT to in vivo imaging, and marks the next step towards its use for in vivo molecular imaging.

Optical coherence tomography and hyperspectral imaging of vascular recovery in a model of peripheral arterial disease

Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) leads to an increased risk of myocardial infarction and stroke, increased mortality, and reduced quality of life. The mouse hind limb ischemia (HLI) model is the most commonly used system for studying the mechanisms of collateral vessel formation and for testing new PAD therapies, but there is a lack of techniques for acquiring physiologically-relevant, quantitative data intravitally in this model. In this work, non-invasive, quantitative optical imaging techniques were applied to the mouse HLI model over a time course. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaged changes in blood flow (Doppler OCT) and microvessel morphology (speckle variance OCT) through the skin of haired mice with high resolution. Hyperspectral imaging was also used to quantify blood oxygenation. In ischemic limbs, blood oxygenation in the footpad was substantially reduced after induction of ischemia followed by complete recovery by three weeks, consistent with standard measures. Three dimensional images of the vasculature distal to vessel occlusion acquired with speckle variance OCT revealed changes in OCT flow signal and vessel morphology. Taken together, OCT and hyperspectral imaging enable intravital acquisition of both functional and morphological data which fill critical gaps in understanding structure-function relationships that contribute to recovery in the mouse HLI model. Therefore, these optical imaging methods hold promise as tools for studying the mechanisms of vascular recovery and evaluating novel therapeutic treatments in preclinical studies.