Jay C. Wade

Male Reference Group Identity Dependence A Theory of Male Identity

This article presents a theory of male identity developed to address the question of why men vary in their masculinity ideology and in their conformity to standards of masculinity. The theory, male reference group identity dependence, is based on two other theories—reference group theory and ego identity development theory. Reference group identity dependence is defined as the extent to which males are dependent on a reference group for their gender role self-concept. An overview of relevant masculinity research, theoretical foundations for the construct of reference group identity dependence, theoretical postulates, and associated behavioral and psychological characteristics are presented. Research implications of the theory are discussed and future research directions are provided.

Racial socialization, racial identity, and Black students' adjustment to college.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of racial socialization and racial identity on adjustment in Black college students. Self-report questionnaires were administered to 141 Black college students from a predominantly White university and racially diverse college. The findings suggest that racial socialization positively contributes to academic adjustment. An internalized-multicultural identity positively contributed to overall college adjustment, and pre-encounter miseducated racial identity negatively contributed. Internalized Afrocentric racial identity was negatively related to overall college adjustment. Implications for multicultural social scientists and directions for future research are discussed.

Masculinity Ideology, Male Reference Group Identity Dependence, and African American Men’s Health-Related Attitudes and Behaviors

This research assessed factors that may relate to African American men’s health-related attitudes and behaviors. African American men (N 208) completed measures of masculinity ideology, male identity, and health attitudes and behaviors. Results showed that male identity and nontraditional masculinity were associated with men’s healthrelated behaviors. In addition, nontraditional masculinity mediated the relationship between male identity and health-related behaviors. Implications for counseling and community and societal interventions with African American men are discussed.

Factors Influencing Masculinity Ideology among Latino Men

This research study assessed the factors that affect Latino mens endorsement of hypermasculinity, an exaggerated form of traditional masculinity ideology. One hundred and one Latino men from two urban universities and surrounding neighborhoods completed measures that assessed ethnic identity, hypermasculinity, sex-role egalitarianism perceived in the home, and reference group identity dependence. It was hypothesized that hypermasculinity would be linked to traditional sex-roles taught in the home, male identity, and ethnic identity. The results indicate that hypermasculinity was associated with high ethnic identity and a male identity characterized by a lack of appreciation of differences among males.

Reference Group Identity Dependence Scale A Measure of Male Identity

The purpose of this study was to develop a measure of male identity based on Wades (1998) theory of male reference group identity dependence. The construct was operationalized in the form of a self-report instrument, the Reference Group Identity Dependence Scale (RGIDS), that assesses feelings of psychological relatedness to other males. A total of 344 undergraduate males from a large state university completed the RGIDS. Construct validity was evaluated by relating the RGIDS to measures of ego identity, gender role conflict, social anxiety, self-esteem, and anxiety and depression symptomatology. Results of the factor analysis indicated that a four-factor structure corresponded to three hypothesized levels of the construct. The four subscales of the RGIDS demonstrated sound internal consistency, and correlations found between the RGIDS and the other measures in the study indicated preliminary support for validity of the construct. The findings are discussed in terms of implications for the theory and future research on men and masculinity.

Male Reference Group Identity Dependence: Support for Construct Validity.

This research study examined correlates of male identity statuses as postulated in Wades (1998) theory of male reference group identity dependence. The Reference Group Identity Dependence Scale (RGIDS; Wade & Gelso, 1998) was correlated with measures of identity aspects (personal, social, and collective), belongingness, and a universal-diverse orientation. Based on the responses of 172 predominantly middle-class undergraduate college men (59% White, 15% Asian American or Pacific Islander, 13% African American, 4% Hispanic, and 9% other race/ethnicity, e.g., biracial, Arab American, Egyptian American), as predicted, the No Reference Group status negatively related to collective identity and social connectedness; the Reference Group Dependent status positively related to social identity and social connectedness; and the Reference Group Nondependent status positively related to personal identity, collective identity, social connectedness, and a universal-diverse orientation toward others.

Sexual Orientation Change Efforts in Men: A Client Perspective:

This study concerned the psychological and social characteristics of 117 men dissatisfied with their same-sex attraction who had pursued sexual orientation change efforts (SOCE). We specifically examined whether sexual identity, male identity, religiosity, marital status, and gender role conflict associated with affection between men were related to self-reports of change in sexual and psychological functioning after having participated in SOCE. Additionally, we explored what motivated the participants to seek SOCE, and what therapeutic interventions and techniques they found to be most and least helpful. Results showed that being married, feeling disconnected with other men prior to seeking help, and reduced conflict in expressing nonsexual affection toward other men related to goals consistent with SOCE. Intrinsic religiosity and a heterosexual identity were related to reports of not changing ones sexual feelings and behavior. Participants perceived the most helpful sexual orientation change interventions to be a mens weekend/retreat, a psychologist, and a mentoring relationship, and the two most helpful techniques to be understanding better the causes ones homosexuality and ones emotional needs and issues and developing nonsexual relationships with same-sex peers, mentors, family members, and friends.

Professional Men's Attitudes toward Race and Gender Equity

This study examined adult mens attitudes toward race and gender equity and their sexual harassment proclivities in relation to male identity status and traditional masculinity ideology. It was hypothesized that a male identity characterized by dependence on a male reference group for ones gender role self-concept would be related to traditional attitudes about masculinity, and both would be associated with attitudes unsupportive of race and gender equity and attitudes conducive to the sexual harassment of women. Conversely, it was also hypothesized that a male identity characterized by not being dependent on a male reference group for ones gender role self-concept would be related to attitudes supportive of race and gender equity, not having attitudes conducive to the sexual harassment of women, and not endorsing traditional attitudes about masculinity. Support for both hypotheses was found, and implications of the findings for understanding mens psychosocial functioning are discussed.

The Issue of Race in Counseling Psychology

The articles in this issue of The Counseling Psychologist discuss race and have implications for counseling psychology. Bryant-Davis and Ocampo’s (2005 [this issue]) article is about evaluation and treatment of racial-ethnic minority clients and patients and has implications for practice. Utsey, Gernat, and Hammar’s (2005 [this issue]) article is about the psychological issues and reactions to discussions of race in the training of psychologists and has implications for training. Delgado-Romero, Galvan, Maschino, and Rowland’s (2005 [this issue]) article is about what information on race and ethnicity is provided in articles being published in three important journals of counseling and has implications for research. Each article also mentions barriers to viewing race-related issues as important, incorporated, or acknowledged. With racism as trauma, the barriers are specifically mentioned: the psychiatric definition of trauma, moral disengagement, diluting the definition of trauma, compensation of victims, determining who is a legitimate victim, and pathologizing the victim of trauma. For discussing race and racism in counseling and in supervision, anxiety, apathy or disinterest, denial, and general psychological defenses are noted. Although not mentioned specifically, I add the barriers of a legitimate ignorance about racism or genuine lack of knowledge and awareness of racism. Barriers to race and ethnicity in research involve how racial classification systems can be used to support racism and oppression, and the universalism perspective in psychology. Each article in the Major Contribution has a central message to practitioners and/or researchers. This reaction will discuss the implications of, and some of the barriers to, addressing race and racism in counseling practice, training, and research. My reactions to each article focus on the question the article answers, the main point of the article, implications for counseling psychology, and general points that expand on the issues. My personal experiences and perspectives on these issues are presented to address reasons for the barriers and how we might be able to overcome some barriers to incorporating race-related issues into counseling psychology.