Jean-Michel Passerault

Analyzing Learner-Hypermedia Interaction: An Overview of Online Methods

In this paper we examine the potential of online methods for hypermedia research. Online methods allow the recording, analysis and interpretation of learner-hypermedia interaction. Online methods have been extensively used in cognitive research, and especially in the area of discourse processing. In the first part of the paper we examine several online methods used in discourse comprehension research. We discuss the benefits and limits of each method, and its applicability to hypermedia research. In the second part we focus on the analysis of learner-hypermedia interaction protocols. We introduce several possible approaches, as a function of the observation grain, or the precision of the events that the researcher needs to examine. We present qualitative and quantitative examples at the coarse, intermediate and fine grain and we discuss the research context in which each approach seems most appropriate. We conclude that the empirical study of learner-hypermedia interaction should comply with the general standards of empirical research, e.g., explicit hypotheses and controlled study conditions.

Memory for words location in writing.

In two experiments, we investigated memory for words location after writing a text. Experiment 1 demonstrated the existence of a memory for words location in writing by showing that participants who first composed a text and were then asked to locate words extracted from their text performed above a chance level established using a computer simulation, and better than participants who did not compose a text but were told the subject of the text. Experiment 2 showed that memory for words location in writing is mainly supported by a visuospatial representation of the text, as indicated by the lower recall of words location by participants who performed a visuospatial concurrent task at the time of the composition, compared with participants who performed a verbal concurrent task. The findings highlight the role of a spatial representation of the physical layout of the text and the role of such a memory in the writing process.

Marquage de l’importance et traitement des eléments dans un texte: Effets immédiat et différé

RésuméDans un texte explicatif présenté à des sujets, on manipule deux types de marques d’importance: marque linguistique (phrase attirant l’attention sur le contenu de la phrase-cible qui la suit); marque paralinguistique (soulignement d’une partie de la phrase-cible). On mesure le temps de lecture (TL) consacré aux différentes phrases du texte. Le soulignement a un effet non seulement sur le TL de la phrasecible elle-même (allongé en cas de soulignement), mais aussi sur le TL de la marque linguistique d’importance qui la précède (plus court quand la phrase-cible est soulignée), et sur le TL de la phrase qui la suit (plus court quand il y a cumul des deux marques d’importance). Pour interpréter ces résultats, on se réfère au rôle joué par les marques d’importance dans l’activation de représentations de haut niveau (ici liées à une structure rhétorique particulière, l’analogie), dont les effets peuvent jouer de manière différée sur l’intégration de la suite du texte. On conclut à la nécessité de prendre en compte l’articulation entre les représentations pertinentes, les indices susceptibles d’activer ces représentations, et les procédés pouvant attirer l’attention du lecteur sur ces indices.AbstractAn expository text is presented, in which two types of importance signals are manipulated: a linguistic signal (a sentence calling attention on the following target-sentence’s contents); a paralinguistic signal (underlining a part of the target-sentence). Reading times (RT) allocated to the various text sentences were measured. The underline affects not only RT for the target-sentence itself (increased in case of underline), but also RT for the preceding linguistic signal (shortened when the targetsentence is underlined), and RT for the following sentence (shortened when the two types of signals are simultaneously present). The interpretation of these results is grounded on the importance signals’ function in activating some high level representations (here bounded to a specific rhetorical structure: analogy), the effects of which can be delayed on the following sentence’s integration. The necessity is argued to take over the connection between relevant representations, marks likely to activate these representations, and devices likely to call reader’s attention on these marks.

The Visuospatial Dimension of Writing

The authors suggest that writing should be conceived of not only as a verbal activity but also as a visuospatial activity, in which writers process and construct visuospatial mental representations. After briefly describing research on visuospatial cognition, they look at how cognitive researchers have investigated the visuospatial dimension of the mental representations and processes engaged in writing. First, they show how Hayes’s research integrated the visuospatial dimension of writing. Second, they describe how the written trace can serve as a visual resource. Third, they focus on the visuospatial processes involved in constructing an overall representation of the text and its physical layout. Finally, they review findings on the visuospatial demands that planning places on working memory. All the data and theories presented in this article support the idea that writing is indeed a visuospatial activity.

Implication of visuospatial and temporal information in memory for word location

Two hypotheses can be raised about the processes underlying memory for word location in text. These could involve accessing the location directly from a visuospatial representation of the text or by reconstructing word location from a temporal representation of the text content. These two processes are examined concerning text reading (Experiment 1) and text writing (Experiment 2). In each experiment, one condition assessed chance level, another assessed location performance when just the temporal dimension of a text is available, and a third assessed location performance when both the temporal and visuospatial dimensions of a text are available. The same pattern of results was observed in the two experiments. Namely, participants who are able to construct a visuospatial representation of their text are better able to locate words than participants who can only rely on temporal information. Location performances when only temporal information is available are above the chance level.

Interference with prior knowledge while writing from sources: Effects of working memory capacity

Writing from sources requires the processing of both external (documentary) and internal (long-term memory; LTM) sources of information, which can sometimes interfere with each other. We hypothesised that writers with high working memory (WM) capacity would resolve interference faster than those with low-capacity WM. However, results showed that writing pause duration was shorter for low-capacity writers. This result suggests that when WM resources are limited, access to domain knowledge in LTM is restricted, thereby avoiding interference between the two sources. Results are discussed within the broader context of text composition from sources and individual differences.

Le souvenir de la localisation des mots d'un texte

EnglishThis article deals with the nature of the mental representation that supports memory for word location in a text. This issue is addressed by reviewing experimental findings collected in reading research but also in the field of writing. First, data demonstrating existence of such memory are presented. Then, findings providing information about the nature of the mental representation that supports memory for word location are detailed. Two conceptions are presented: one in favour of a visuo-spatial representation of texts, the other supporting the idea that readers or writers reconstruct word location from non visuo-spatial cues. The conclusion underlines complementarity of these two conceptions. francaisLa question posee dans cet article est celle de la nature de la representation qui permet aux individus de localiser les mots d�un texte prealablement traite. Cette question est abordee a partir des observations realisees sur l�activite de lecture mais egalement de production de texte. D�abord, sont exposees les donnees qui montrent l�existence d�un souvenir de la localisation des mots, puis sont presentees les observations qui permettent de faire des hypotheses quant a la nature de la representation supportant ce souvenir. Deux conceptions sont envisagees : l�une en faveur d�une representation visuo-spatiale du texte, et l�autre suggerant que les individus reconstruisent la localisation des mots a partir d�indices non visuo-spatiaux. La conclusion souligne la complementarite de chacune de ces conceptions.

Visuospatial Processing in Memory for Word Location in Writing

Two experiments examined how visuospatial processing engaged during text composition intervenes in memory for word location. Experiment 1 showed that in contrast to participants who performed a spatial task concurrently with composing a text, participants who performed a concurrent visual task recalled fewer word locations after the composition. Consequently, it is hypothesized that writers process the written text in order to visually represent its physical layout, and that this representation is then used when locating words. Experiment 2 tested this hypothesis by comparing a standard composition condition (with the written trace) with a condition in which the written trace was suppressed during composition, and with a condition without written trace and with added visual noise. Memory for word location only decreased with visual noise, indicating that construction of the visual representation of the text does not rely on the written trace but involves visual working memory.

Temporal Management of the Writing Process: Effects of Genre and Organizing Constraints in Grades 5, 7, and 9

We investigated changes across grades in the cognitive demands associated with the organizing subprocess of writing. A total of 85 fifth (age M = 10.8), 88 seventh (age M = 12.9), and 79 ninth (age M = 14.6) graders composed either a procedural text or an expository description on a digital tablet, on the basis of a “scrambled ideas” paradigm. The demands of organizing were measured in terms of time management (the time spent pausing and transcribing during text production). Our results suggest a developmental change in the on-line management of the organizing subprocess. Findings indicate that only pupils from ninth grade onward adapt their writing behavior to match the task demands. Results are discussed in light of Berninger and Swanson’s developmental model of writing.

Levels of Functioning in Semantic Memory and Levels of Comprehension of Texts

We assume that a text representation can be defined as an organized group of concepts. The different concepts which form the representation are activated and their informative content is determined. The concepts are coordinated by a set of relations which stabilize the representation into a definite organization. Our results show that the activation of the first base concepts involves the activation of the superordinate concepts. However, this vertical activation does not allow anticipation of further events. Yet the thematic concept, when activated, does facilitate the integration of these events.