Jean S. Phinney

The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure A New Scale for Use with Diverse Groups

Ethnic identity is an important component of the self-concept and, like other aspects of identity, can be particularly salient during adolescence. Most research on ethnic identity has focused on the unique elements that distinguish particular ethnic groups. However, it is important as well to study and compare ethnic identity and its correlates across groups. This article presents a questionnaire measure of ethnic identity based on the elements of ethnic identity that are common across groups, so that it can be used with all ethnic groups. The questionnaire was administered to 417 high school students and 136 college students from ethnically diverse schools. Reliability, assessed by Cronbach s alpha, was .81 for the high school sample and .9Ofor the college sample. The relationship of ethnic identity to various demographic variables and to self-esteem was examined. The measure can be used to examine similarities and differences in ethnlic identity and its correlates among youths from different ethnic groups.

ETHNIC IDENTITY IN ADOLESCENTS AND ADULTS : REVIEW OF RESEARCH

Ethnic identity is central to the psychological functioning of members of ethnic and racial minority groups, but research on the topic is fragmentary and inconclusive. This article is a review of 70 studies of ethnic identity published in refereed journals since 1972. The author discusses the ways in which ethnic identity has been defined and conceptualized, the components that have been measured, and empirical findings. The task of understanding ethnic identity is complicated because the uniqueness that distinguishes each group makes it difficult to draw general conclusions. A focus on the common elements that apply across groups could lead to a better understanding of ethnic identity.

Stages of Ethnic Identity Development in Minority Group Adolescents

Stages of ethnic identity development were assessed through in-depth interviews with 91 Asian-American, Black, Hispanic, and White tenth-grade students, all American born, from integrated urban high schools. Subjects were also given questionnaire measures of ego identity and psychological adjustment. On the basis of the interviews, minority subjects were coded as being in one of three identity stages; White subjects could not be reliably coded. Among the minorities, about one-half of the subjects had not explored their ethnicity (diffusion/foreclosure); about one-quarter were involved in exploration (moratorium); and about one-quarter had explored and were committed to an ethnic identity (ethnic identity achieved). Ethnic-identity-achieved subjects had the highest scores on an independent measure of ego identity and on psychological adjustment. The process of identity development was similar across the three minority groups, but the particular issues faced by each group were different.

Conceptualization and Measurement of Ethnic Identity: Current Status and Future Directions

In this article, the authors examine the conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity as a multidimensional, dynamic construct that develops over time through a process of exploration and commitment. The authors discuss the components of ethnic identity that have been studied and the theoretical background for a developmental model of ethnic identity. The authors review research on the measurement of ethnic identity using the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (J. Phinney, 1992) and present a revised version of the measure. The authors conclude with a consideration of the measurement issues raised by J. E. Helms (2007) and K. Cokley (2007) and suggestions for future research on ethnic identity. Ethnic identity is many faceted. This is made clear in the special issue of which this article is a part. But recognizing that ethnic identity has many facets is merely a start to understanding it. Ethnic identity derives from a sense of peoplehood within a group, a culture, and a particular setting. Yet ethnic identity is not merely knowledge and understanding of ones ingroup affiliations, even as such insights and comprehension are part of it. The achievement of a secure ethnic identity derives from experience, but experience is not sufficient to produce it. Because ones ethnic identity is con- structed over time, the actions and choices of individuals are essential to the process. Ethnic identity is distinct in some ways from other group identities, such as racial identity, but it also shares aspects of both personal and group identities. Our purpose in this article was to examine the conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity from social psychological and developmental perspectives. We first review the various dimen- sions of ethnic identity that have been proposed in the literature. We then discuss the theoretical and empirical basis for understand- ing ethnic identity as a developmental process. We review research on the measurement of ethnic identity based on the widely used Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM, Phinney, 1992; Rob- erts et al., 1999), discuss recent measurement research that has led to a revision of the MEIM, and present a revised version of the MEIM. We conclude with a discussion of issues that might be profitably considered in future ethnic identity research, with a consideration of the ideas and recommendations offered by Helms (2007) and Cokley (2007). In keeping with the focus of the special issue, we discuss ethnic identity with reference to ethnic minorities in the United States.

Ethnic Identity, Immigration, and Well‐Being: An Interactional Perspective

On the basis of existing theory and research regarding ethnic identity and immigration and our own empirical work in four immigrant-receiving countries, we suggest an interactional model for understanding psychological outcomes for immigration. Specifically, the interrelationship of ethnic and national identity and their role in the psychological well-being of immigrants can best be understood as an interaction between the attitudes and characteristics of immigrants and the responses of the receiving society. This interaction is moderated by the particular circumstances of the immigrant group. The strengths of ethnic and national identity vary depending on the support for ethnic maintenance and the pressure for assimilation. Most studies show that the combination of a strong ethnic identity and a strong national identity promotes the best adaptation.

The Structure of Ethnic Identity of Young Adolescents from Diverse Ethnocultural Groups

The purpose for this study was to examine the structure and construct validity of a measure of ethnic identity among young adolescents from diverse ethnic groups. Students in sixth, seventh, and eighth grades (N = 5,423) from diverse ethnic groups completed the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM), measures of psychological well-being and a measure of salience of ethnicity. Factor analyses of data for the three largest ethnic groups (European American, African American, Mexican American) yielded a two-factor structure that corresponded to two theoretical approaches to ethnic identity, as hypothesized. Similar patterns in magnitude of loadings were observed across groups, indicating that the MEIM could be used as a global composite index of ethnic identity. Ethnic identity was related positively to measures of psychological well-being such as coping ability, mastery, self-esteem and optimism, and negatively to measures of loneliness and depression. MEIM scores also were moderately strong and positive with salience (the importance of a person’s own ethnic background in his or her life), across ethnic groups.

Ethnic and American Identity as Predictors of Self-Esteem among African American, Latino, and White Adolescents.

In order to examine ethnic and American identity as predictors of self-esteem among adolescents, we surveyed 669 American-born high school students (372 Latinos, 232 African Americans, and 65 Whites). Participants completed measures of self-esteem, ethnic identity, American identity, attitudes toward other groups, and demographic variables. Multiple regression analyses of self-esteem were carried out separately for each ethnic group, using ethnic and American identity, other-group attitudes, gender, age, socioeconomic status, and grade point average as predictors. Results indicated that for all groups ethnic identity was a significant predictor of self-esteem. For the White students only, American identity was a strong predictor of self-esteem and was highly correlated with ethnic identity. Other predictors varied across ethnic groups. Although ethnic identity was a significant predictor of self-esteem, it accounted for a relatively small proportion of the variance, suggesting the importance of other influences on self-esteem.

Ethnic identity in college students from four ethnic groups.

Research on adolescent identity development within Eriksons (1968) framework has not included ethnicity. This study examined ethnic identity search and commitment, the importance of ethnicity as an identity issue, and relationship of ethnic identity to self-esteem among college students. Questionnaires were given to 196 male and female urban college students from three minority groups (Asian-American, Black, and Mexican-American) and a comparison White group. Exploration of ethnic identity issues was significantly higher among minority group, compared to majority group, college students. Ethnicity was considered to be as important as two other traditionally studied areas of identity and was rated as significantly more important by minorities than by Whites. Self-esteem, especially for minority subjects was related to the extent that subjects had thought about and resolved issues involving their ethnicity.

The Role of Motivation, Parental Support, and Peer Support in the Academic Success of Ethnic Minority First-Generation College Students

The role of personal motivational characteristics and environmental social supports in college outcomes was examined in a longitudinal study of 100 ethnic minority first-generation college students. Personal/career-related motivation to attend college in the fall was a positive predictor and lack of peer support was a negative predictor of college adjustment the following spring. Lack of peer support also predicted lower spring GPA.

Ethnic Identity and Self-Esteem: A Review and Integration

In order to clarify the relationship between ethnic identity and self-esteem, this article identifies a number of components of ethnic identity and examines research linking each component to self-esteem. Research generally has found a weak or inconsistent relationship between self-esteem and the following components: negative stereotypes of ones group; acceptance versus rejection of ones group membership; knowledge about ones group; and commitment to the group. Failure to find a clearer relationship may be a result of not taking into account the ethnic group members relationship to the mainstream culture. There is evidence to suggest that a strong ethnic identity, when accompanied by a positive mainstream orientation, is related to high self-esteem, whereas without some adaptation to the mainstream it may be problematic.