Jean Saint-Martin

From Marin County's Seventies Clunker to the Durango World Championship 1990: A History of Mountain Biking in the USA

Between the 1970s, during which several enthusiastic cyclists rode off-road, and the 1990s, during which the first Union Cycliste Internationale World Championship took place in Durango (Colorado), different steps contributed to the success of mountain bike in the US. Inventions took place throughout the period from Gary Fishers mechanical improvements in 1975 to Joe Breezes first specialized frames made in 1977. In the same fashion, the ‘Stumpjumper’ was sold on a large scale in 1982, making it the first industrially-produced mountain bike, which led to a new stage in terms of commercialization. The mountain bike opened a new market in the cycling industry and certainly became more financially accessible to a large number of people. This sport, which began in the US, became a worldwide outdoor sport in the last decade of the twentieth century when the Olympics welcomed it with open arms at the Atlanta Olympic Games.

Journey in the historiography of the French Method of Physical Education: a matter of nationalism, imperialism and gender

The three volumes of the French Method of Physical Education were published by the military school of Joinville-Le-Pont between 1925 and 1927 and became one of the most successful reference materials in France for sport and physical education among school, military and civilian institutions. Several authors studied these manuals, but they focused mainly on their pedagogic eclecticism and philosophical background. They also stressed that the Army accepted to reduce its military goal in order to fulfil the hygienic aims that the country considered crucial in the post-war context. Only recently, however, have new perspectives begun exploring more systematically the French Method in its social, political, gender and international aspects. The aim of this paper is to propose a first synthesis of these works and, together with some new insights, to free the French Method from the purely pedagogic history in which it has long remained within the historiography of education.

A View of the 1948 London Olympics from across the Channel: An Analysis of the French Press

During the Labour Partys preparation for the 1948 London Olympic Games, which were held from 29 July to 16 August and were, although only three years after the Yalta Agreement of 11 February 1945, an attempt to point the United Kingdom resolutely into the future, the French press did not hesitate to criticize the resourcefulness and relaxed attitude of the British. Frances ambivalent perception was, moreover, further magnified by the absence of Germany, Japan and the USSR, which reopened the question of politics in sport and its use for propaganda purposes, 12 years after the nationalist excesses of the Berlin Games. Analysis of coverage concerning the ‘Reconciliation Games’ in the main French papers highlights the contrasted effect of the London Olympics and illustrates the predominant weight of political ideologies in the construction of national identities. Finally, it underlines the recurrent difficulties encountered in bringing together the French and the British who were, immediately after the Second World War, divided between the necessity to commemorate and be hopeful for a pacified Europe.

Innovation in alpine sports and leisure activities: Issues, processes and dynamics

Innovation has become a popular word to emphasize a modernism or, simply, the ability of individuals, social groups or enterprises to adapt to change. This process, also often connected with contemporaneity, affects every sector. Nonetheless, when it comes to gaining support for innovation, sectors with great economic potential receive the most attention even though innovation most often plays out on the fringes (Alter, 2013). This specific aspect is essential in order to understand the importance of innovation analysis. In fact, innovation begins with risk-taking aimed at inventing new ways of thinking or doing in terms of existing models. At first, it is important to acknowledge the process: change is often anecdotic (De Certeau, 1990) at best, limited to a few individuals and scorned at times in view of the fractures that it can create. The process of going from invention to innovation lies in the ability to promote the novelty to give it social purpose and accessibility to the wider public. Therefore, initially, innovations of any kind would be little known before some become a part of our lives to the point of making a real difference. Innovation is, in fact, stimulated by a desire for distinction (economic, social, technological, cultural, etc.). Innovating implies being different while affirming this through the act or the machine. Because it dwells in each and every social domain and participates in changes to individuals’ lifestyles or habits, innovation cannot be understood exclusively through sectors where advantages are measurable (computer science, health, etc.). Other forms of often inherent innovations should be investigated, as much as electronic applications are (Facebook, etc.), if they have a major impact on the existence of individuals or the community and contribute to structuring what people do with their time. The call for discussion of innovations in the field of alpine leisure activities is based on the belief that the latter provide an ideal opportunity for change. It would be impossible to understand the multiform reality that affects tools (materials, etc.), practices, social factors or spaces. In fact, as with other social practices, alpine sports and leisure activities are characterized by a strong innovative dynamic which presents a form of instability that should be understood better in order to grasp its development, expansion and impact. For this very reason, we have chosen to organize this special issue around social and cultural innovations. In no way does this exclude technical or technological innovation. Rather, it is based on changes in the way in which individuals relate to each other and their environment. Social and cultural innovations have one thing in common: they meet unfulfilled expectations while presenting a better understanding of reality. Social uses of

Strengthening Minds and Bodies Within the French School System. Physical Education for Boys and Girls Between 1936 and 1950

Physical education has been compulsory in France since 1880. Between 1936 and 1950, expansion intensified and extensive changes were made to course content. This article assesses the ramifications of these choices through an in-depth study of four variables that defined its instruction. Even if priority was given to generalisation and equal access to knowledge, research revealed an upsurge in the fight against real or presumed student vulnerability. At the time, a strong consensus emerged with the commitment to fight frailty. This was all the more the case for young girls as they belonged to a specific group with respect to their physical make-up. The school system stressed the relevance of instruction adapted to girls even if emphasis was placed on the cultural aspect of sport content. The pedagogical programmes put into effect for youths based on these guidelines confirmed this trend. This situation raised concerns as to the role of the school system in the development of social stereotypes through a discipline that would become the focus of the French education system.

Outdoor physical education in French schools during the twentieth century

ABSTRACT During the twentieth century, outdoor physical education (OPE) gradually integrated with the French education system. Culturally speaking, OPE had to overcome several hurdles because it promoted values such as freedom, initiative and responsibility that were deemed incompatible with the existing educational model. Beyond being a pedagogical tool, the health and welfare implications justified the existence of OPE within the school system, thus changing the meaning of those values. The question of human relations with nature truly facilitated the incorporation of OPE into French educational programmes even if the scope of its development is rather limited today. Some might regret the predominance of a kind of physical activity that conveyed values and was proven to be especially productive in terms of issues related to education, security and respect for the environment. Nevertheless, OPE physical activities found their rightful place within the school system because of the sports facet of the activities.

L’innovation dans les loisirs sportifs de montagne : enjeux, processus et dynamiques

L’innovation est devenue un terme à la mode pour souligner la modernité ou tout simplement la capacité des individus, des groupes sociaux ou des entreprises à s’adapter au(x) changement(s). Aucun domaine ne paraît être épargné par un processus qui est par ailleurs le plus souvent attaché à la contemporanéité. Il n’en reste pas moins que les secteurs à fort potentiel économique demeurent privilégiés dans les soutiens apportés à l’innovation qui se joue pourtant le plus souvent dans les marges (Alter, 2013). Cet aspect est essentiel afin de comprendre l’importance de l’analyse de l’innovation. En effet, celleci débute par une prise de risque visant à inventer de nouvelles manières de faire ou de penser par rapport à l’existant. Au début de ce qu’il est nécessaire d’appréhender comme un processus, le changement est souvent anecdotique (De Certeau, 1990), limité au mieux à quelques individus et parfois raillé au regard des ruptures qu’il peut engager. Le passage de l’invention à l’innovation se joue dans la capacité à diffuser la nouveauté pour en faire un objet social et permettre à un public plus large de s’en saisir. Toute forme d’innovation a ainsi d’abord été confidentielle avant de faire partie, pour certaines d’entre elles, de nos existences jusqu’à influer le cours des choses. L’innovation est en effet stimulée par une volonté de distinction (économique, sociale, technologique, culturelle, etc.). Innover c’est être différent tout en l’affirmant par le geste ou la machine. C’est donc parce qu’elle se niche dans l’ensemble des domaines sociaux et qu’elle participe à transformer les modes de vie, les habitudes des individus, que l’innovation ne peut être appréhendée uniquement par l’intermédiaire des secteurs où les bénéfices sont mesurables (informatiques, santé, etc.). D’autres formes d’innovations souvent immanentes sont à explorer dans la mesure où elles ont, tout autant que les applications électroniques (Facebook, etc.), un impact majeur sur les existences individuelles et collectives et participent à structurer les temps sociaux. Si nous avons souhaité lancer un appel à communication sur l’innovation dans le domaine des loisirs sportifs de montagne, c’est parce que nous considérons qu’ils constituent un espace particulièrement favorable au changement. Toutefois, il n’était pas envisageable d’appréhender une réalité multiforme touchant à la fois les outils (matériels, etc.), les pratiques, les modes de sociabilités ou les espaces. En effet, comme d’autres pratiques sociales, les loisirs sportifs de montagne sont marqués par une très forte dynamique innovante qui leur confère une certaine forme d’instabilité qu’il est nécessaire de mieux comprendre afin de cerner leur développement, leur dispersion ainsi que leurs impacts. À ce titre, nous avons choisi d’organiser ce numéro spécial autour des innovations sociales et culturelles. Non pas que celles-ci excluent les innovations techniques ou

The Mission of Scholastic Sport in the Expansion of Sport Practice in France: The Issues Involving Development and Collateral Effects (1938–1950)

Within the boundaries of education and sport institutions, French scholastic sport presented extraordinary educational goals. The re-examination of its growth between 1938 and 1950 required an understanding of how scholastic sport shaped an institution working to allow sport to take root in France by encouraging its youth to make long-term commitments to physical activity. More generally, understanding how the promotion of the scholastic sport attempted to highlight the cultural context of French society takes on its full meaning.

Forming modern citizens in the 1960s: comparative analysis of teaching in natural sciences, physical sciences and physical education throughout France

Reforms made to France’s education system structures during the 1960s resulted in a repositioning of academic subjects within study plans. This article looks at three relatively similar subjects (physical sciences, natural sciences and physical education) and throws light on the arguments put forward to defend the purpose of each of them in the educational process. The arguments provided intended not only to establish each subject’s legitimacy from mainly economic, social and political points of view, where the aim was to form the future leaders of a modern society, but also from the academic perspective. Indeed, each subject had to position itself within a changed ‘hierarchy’, giving rise to new interdisciplinary issues which contributed to the transformation of French schools.