Jeffrey C. Hallo

GPS as a Method for Assessing Spatial and Temporal Use Distributions of Nature-Based Tourists:

Traditional methods of collecting spatial and temporal use data are burdensome to both tourists and researchers, and they often lack needed accuracy. This article examines emergent GPS technology and its application to tracking nature-based tourists. Two applications of GPS presented here demonstrate the usefulness and functionality of GPS for tracking nature-based tourists in most natural recreation environments and in open, complex systems. This study finds that GPS offers advantages over traditional methods for tracking visitors, including more reliable, accurate, and precise data. GPS makes measuring and understanding visitor use patterns even more valuable since actual movements can be investigated instead of reported movements. Also, the accuracy and detail of GPS-collected data allow for analyses and investigations not otherwise possible. Visitor-based GPS surveys represent a useful and potentially powerful tool to help better plan, manage, and monitor nature-based tourists.

Charisma and conservation: charismatic megafauna’s influence on safari and zoo tourists’ pro-conservation behaviors

Annually, millions of tourists go on safari and visit zoos primarily to view large charismatic wildlife. These venues rely on the inherent appeal of these animals to increase visitation and anchor conservation efforts. In conservation campaigns, flagship species are used to stimulate a connection to a species and promote pro-conservation behaviors. However, empirical support for behavioral outcomes associated with flagships is lacking. Nor is it known how a connection to a species influences behaviors. This study explored (a) how tourists connect to wildlife, how this relationship is influenced by the on-site experience, and how these factors interact to influence behavior, and (b) how the experiences between safari and zoo venues differed. A model was developed using interactional theory and analyzed with structural equation modeling. Data were obtained from 416 tourists to Tanzanian parks and protected areas and 452 tourists to two U.S. zoos and one aquarium. An existing connection to wildlife and experiential factors directly influenced tourists’ connection to a species, but not behaviors. Tourists’ connection to a species had a significant positive influence on pro-conservation behaviors for individual species and general biodiversity. The influence of the experience was equivalent across safari and zoo venues. Results support the ability of safari and zoo wildlife tourism to produce conservation outcomes.

GPS tracking of travel routes of wanderers and planners.

Abstract Some of the most basic but vital data on recreation and travel behavior at tourism destinations consists of the places people visit, their travel routes, and the amount of time spent at each location. Despite that travel patterns are a fundamental aspect of the tourism phenomenon, little attention has been given to spatial and temporal tourist behaviors. Furthermore, although tourist typologies have identified some differences in visitor behaviors, little is known of how these typologies are related to actual travel patterns. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine if people with different travel styles differ in their actual movement patterns by combining spatial movement data with non-spatial visitor characteristics. This study used GPS to track tourists’ use of an area and surveys to measure different activity styles based on a typology of ‘wanderers’ and ‘planners.’ The ‘wanderer-planner’ typology was validated through confirmatory factor analysis. Factor composite scores were used to separate participants into four groups: Traditional Wanderers, Traditional Planners, Ambivalent Travelers, and Planned Wanderers. GPS data were used to identify spatial and temporal travel patterns and distribution of visitors. Time spent on primary roads, secondary roads, and stopping locations were treated as dependent variables used to identify actual travel pattern differences between ‘wanderers’ and ‘planners.’ Results showed that there were no significant differences between any of the groups on these three variables. Findings revealed that travel style had no significant effect on actual travel patterns. Practical, theoretical, and methodical implications are discussed.

Understanding and managing the off-road vehicle experience: standards of quality

A companion paper in a previous issue of Managing Leisure suggested that crowding, litter, and waiting time to get a use permit were among the variables important in defining a high-quality off-road vehicle (ORV) experience at Cape Cod National Seashore (Cape Cod). Potential standards of quality – the minimum acceptable condition for these indicator variables – are addressed in this paper. Data to help formulate standards were collected during the 2005 summer-use season by asking visitors to evaluate narrative/numeric questions describing a range of visitor-caused impacts or photographic simulations depicting such impacts. Responses to survey questions suggest that between 12.0 and 33.2 ORVs per 0.16 km are appropriate for the ORV route, depending on what evaluative dimension (i.e., ‘preference’, ‘acceptability’, ‘management action’, or ‘displacement’) is considered. Maximum litter densities of 4.0–56.8 pieces of litter per 225 m2 area and a maximum waiting time to receive an ORV-use permit of 58 min to 11 h, 37 min are appropriate, again depending on the evaluative dimension considered. The normative data developed in this study can be used to help formulate standards of quality, enhance understanding of the ORV experience, and guide the management of high-quality ORV recreation.

Doing sustainability: an application of an inter-disciplinary and mixed-method approach to a regional sustainable tourism project.

This paper describes and explains an interdisciplinary and mixed-method approach to a large-scale sustainable tourism development project. The research took place in a two-county area straddling the Blue Ridge Parkway in the Appalachian mountains of Virginia, USA. It was commissioned in order to develop a sustainable tourism centerpiece to enhance the region and encourage visitor expenditures while maintaining the environment and quality of life of the community. In response to Hollinshead and Jamals 2007 call for a more bricoleur and third ear approach to tourism research, a gap analysis of the regions tourism offerings was performed using six interdisciplinary, mixed-method research phases seeking to identify discrepancies between the current regions tourism offerings, visitor preferences and community stakeholders. Phases included a Community Resource Assessment (GIS-based Inventory), Stakeholder Interviews, a Visitor Survey and GPS visitor tracking, the development of seven Potential Scenarios, a Potential Visitor Survey and an Economic Analysis. Subsequently, two potential tourism centerpieces were developed with the goal of showcasing the regions unique mountain and agricultural heritage. In addition to providing a detailed overview of the research project, the paper concludes with discussion of the practical and political challenges, time constraints and rewards that accompany this type of research.

Attitudes toward water conservation: the influence of site-specific factors and beliefs in climate change.

Areas affected by drought are increasing, and many lakes that provide potable water and recreation opportunities are located in drought-vulnerable areas. Understanding a populations attitudes toward conservation actions can improve communication initiatives, policy development, and education, which are all necessary for effective water resource management. However, little is known about stakeholders’ interactions with drought-influenced resources and the potential factors that form their water conservation attitudes. Using a mixed methods approach, we evaluated lake recreationists’ (n = 229) attitudes toward water conservation at a drought-impacted lake. We identified the relationships between two site-specific factors (place attachment and awareness of drought impacts), beliefs in climate change, concern for drought impacts, and water conservation attitudes. Results indicated concern for local drought impacts fully mediated the relationships between site-specific factors, beliefs in climate change, and attitudes toward water conservation behaviors. Implications for research, outreach, and water resource management are discussed.

Analysis of the Social Carrying Capacity of a National Park Scenic Road

ABSTRACT Most visitors experience national parks using their personal automobiles, but what is the capacity of park roads to accommodate this use? A simulation model of a national park scenic road was built to explore the roads social carrying capacity and service quality. Current and potential future vehicle use levels were compared in the simulation against visitor-reported standards for congestion. Social carrying capacities for the road were derived from the simulation model results – both with and without an alternative management approach applied. These social carrying capacities suggest that traditional transportation planning concepts need to be reevaluated when applied to scenic or experiential roads.

Normative standards for wildlife viewing in parks and protected areas

With increasing public interest in wildlife watching, there is a need to develop methods to better inform management of quality viewing opportunities. In this study, normative methods using indicators and standards of quality are applied at two diverse parks/protected areas: a popular national park in Alaska and a lesser known wildlife refuge in New Hampshire. Three potential indicators of quality are identified that can be used to help define and manage wildlife viewing opportunities, and a range of potential standards of quality are developed for these indicator variables. In general, normative standards of visitors to the two study areas were salient and moderately to highly crystallized. Furthermore, study findings indicate that visitors are currently experiencing high-quality wildlife viewing at both sites. Wildlife viewing indicators and standards developed at these diverse study locations may be applicable at a wide range of parks and protected areas.

Bundling attractions for rural tourism development

ABSTRACT Tourism is often regarded as a viable solution to economic crisis, especially for remote areas without many development options. While many tourism destinations have strong cultural or heritage assets, not all destinations have primary attractions that can bring visitors to the region. Rather than developing special interest “themes”, rural areas that do not have enough of any one type of tourism resource to act as a primary draw may consider bundling different attraction types to increase visitation. The purpose of this study is to investigate the preferences of visitors to secondary heritage sites and explore the relationship between heritage tourism and alternative, non-heritage activities in rural areas. Findings revealed that motivation to visit small-scale heritage sites consisted of two dimensions: learning and recreation. The two motivational dimensions influenced visitors’ interest in different heritage attractions and likelihood of visiting heritage tourism “scenarios”. As for alternative activities, there was a cluster of “popular” activities that were enjoyed by both learning-oriented and recreation-oriented respondents, but recreation-oriented visitors were more interested in nature-based activities and sport-related activities than learning-oriented visitors. Findings can help rural communities improve secondary attractions and diversify their tourism product by bundling heritage attractions with non-heritage activities.

Perceptions of tourism revenue sharing impacts on Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda: a Sustainable Livelihoods framework

ABSTRACT Tourism revenue sharing (TRS) has become a popular strategy for integrated wildlife conservation and rural development in Africa. In Rwanda, 5% of tourism revenue is invested annually in communities adjacent to protected areas. However, the conservation impact of the TRS strategy has been challenged. Previous studies have revealed structural constraints of TRS, which partially explain TRS shortfalls. The TRS application is complex and needs deeper understanding of both conceptual and structural constraints. In this paper, we examine local perceptions of TRS, and use the Sustainable Livelihoods framework to conceptually understand the livelihood capability, equity and sustainability constraints of TRS at Volcanoes National Park (VNP). Results suggest that TRS has had minimal conservation impact due to acute food insecurity and limited livelihood capabilities among the poorest residents in proximity to VNP. This is exacerbated by several TRS structural constraints, such as the association membership fee requirement for TRS benefits, political influence, poor conservation linkages, and limited participation of the most socially and economically disadvantaged residents in proximity to VNP. This paper recommends restructuring of the TRS decision-making process to ensure consideration of both short-term and long-term conservation goals, wildlife conservation linkages and participation of the most economically disadvantaged residents in proximity to the park boundary.