Jelena Mihaljević Djigunović

RECENT RESEARCH ON AGE, SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, AND EARLY FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING

The aim of this chapter is to provide a critical overview of the issues and research conducted since the most recent state-of-the-art article published in the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics by David Singleton (2001). First, we summarize what research has said about the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) in cognitive science and neurobiology, then we review recent findings of age-related studies since 2000 focusing on what late beginners and adults can achieve, and how early and later beginners compare in bilingual programs. The second part of the presentation explores language policy and classroom implications of the CPH for foreign language teaching. As English has become the lingua franca, early programs have mushroomed all over the world. However, besides overwhelming enthusiasm, more recently critical voices can also be heard. On the one hand, early exposure is often seen as a key to success and a solution to all problems in language education; on the other hand, it may be perceived as a threat to first language development and identity. Finally, we explore areas for further research.

All Shades of Every Color: An Overview of Early Teaching and Learning of Foreign Languages

The paper analyzes research published over the last five years. The first part looks into policy documents, types of programs, and surveys to identify (a) reasons why an early start to learning languages is seen as beneficial and under what conditions; (b) possible threats; and (c) the aims and expected outcomes that are predicted by various models. The second part discusses studies on learners, including what they do in classrooms, how they perform on tasks, how their languages interact, and how they develop in different skills. A separate section reviews individual differences in the affective, cognitive, and strategic domains, as well as the role of learners’ socioeconomic status and their learning difficulties. In the third part, we draw on classroom observation and interview studies to discuss teachers’ roles, proficiency and uses of languages, and beliefs and practices. In the fourth part, we focus on the assessment of young learners; more specifically, we review what the construct of assessment is, what various assessment frameworks include, what international and national examinations exist, and what assessment for learning involves. Finally, in the last section we review implications for further research.

Starting age and L1 and L2 interaction

The study looks into the multi-competence of early and late beginners by studying the interaction of achievement in their L1 and L2. In the context of this study L1 was Croatian and L2 English. Early beginners are defined as learners who started learning English before age 10 and late beginners as learners who started at 10 or later. The findings of this study show that the multi-competence of early and later beginners differs in terms of interaction between their L1 and L2. It is suggested that early beginners, through their longer exposure to L2, reach the necessary competence levels in their two languages sooner to allow transfer in both directions. Before these levels are reached, L1—L2 interactions are either non-existent or weak.The study looks into the multi-competence of early and late beginners by studying the interaction of achievement in their L1 and L2. In the context of this study L1 was Croatian and L2 English. Early beginners are defined as learners who started learning English before age 10 and late beginners as learners who started at 10 or later. The findings of this study show that the multi-competence of early and later beginners differs in terms of interaction between their L1 and L2. It is suggested that early beginners, through their longer exposure to L2, reach the necessary competence levels in their two languages sooner to allow transfer in both directions. Before these levels are reached, L1—L2 interactions are either non-existent or weak.

Individual Learner Differences and Young Learners’ Performance on L2 Speaking Tests

This chapter focuses on motivation and self-concept and their role in oral production in early learning of English as a foreign language. A review of major research findings considering the relationship of these individual learner differences and oral performance by young foreign language learners is followed by presentation and discussion of the study the author carried our with Croatian learners of English as a foreign language. The participants, aged 11 at the start and 14 at the end of the study, were followed for 4 years. Each year their motivation and self-concept were measured by means of smiley questionnaires and oral interviews, while their oral production was elicited each year through picture description tasks and personal oral interviews. The study offers interesting evidence of the dynamics of young learners’ motivation and self-concept and their relationship with their developing oral performance. Implications of the findings are considered as well.