Jennifer A. Livingston

Assessing Women's Experiences of Sexual Aggression Using the Sexual Experiences Survey: Evidence for Validity and Implications for Research.

In this study we examined the ability of a modified Sexual Experiences Survey (SES; Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987) to assess sexual victimization among a local community sample of women (n = 1,014). Women who reported sexual victimization were interviewed regarding the most recent incident. Those who responded negatively to all SES items were asked whether they had ever feared they would be sexually assaulted but were not, and to describe that incident. Independent coders read a subset of transcripts (n = 137) and classified each incident as reflecting: one of the SES items, a form of unwanted sex not included on the SES, or not unwanted sex. Coders viewed nearly all incidents elicited by the SES as reflecting some type of unwanted sex. Respondent-coder agreement for rape and coercion incidents was high, but low for contact and attempted rape incidents. The SES scoring continuum, reflecting objective severity of acts, was only modestly associated with subjective trauma associated with rape, attempted rape, coercion, and contact.

Alcohol Consumption and Women's Vulnerability to Sexual Victimization: Can Reducing Women's Drinking Prevent Rape?

Before effective prevention interventions can be developed, it is necessary to identify the mechanisms that contribute to the targeted negative outcomes. A review of the literature on womens substance use and sexual victimization points to womens heavy episodic drinking as a proximal risk factor, particularly among college samples. At least half of sexual victimization incidents involve alcohol use and the majority of rapes of college women occur when the victim is too intoxicated to resist (“incapacitated rape”). Despite the importance of womens heavy episodic drinking as being a risk factor, existing rape prevention programs have rarely addressed womens alcohol use and have shown little success in reducing rates of sexual victimization. We argue that given the strength of the association between heavy episodic drinking and sexual victimization among young women, prevention programs targeting drinking may prove more efficacious than programs targeting sexual vulnerability. Applications of existing drinking prevention strategies to reducing womens sexual victimization are discussed.

Prospective Prediction of Women’s Sexual Victimization by Intimate and Nonintimate Male Perpetrators

Although behavioral risk factors such as substance use have been hypothesized to increase womens vulnerability to sexual victimization, prospective studies provide mixed empirical support. In the current prospective study, the authors considered substance use, sexual activity, and sexual assertiveness as predictors of sexual victimization from intimate partners and nonintimate perpetrators. Among a representative community sample of women ages 18-30 years (N = 927), 17.9% reported sexual victimization over 2 years, the majority by an intimate partner. Low sexual refusal assertiveness, drug use, and prior intimate partner victimization predicted intimate partner sexual victimization. Heavy episodic drinking and number of sexual partners predicted victimization from nonintimates. The finding that there are different risk factors for sexual victimization from intimates versus nonintimates suggests the need for tailored prevention strategies.

Alcohol and Sexual Risk Behaviors as Mediators of the Sexual Victimization - Revictimization Relationship

OBJECTIVE Women who experience sexual victimization, whether in childhood, adolescence, or adulthood, are at elevated risk of sexual revictimization. The mechanism responsible for this robust association is unclear, however. The present study proposed and tested a prospective, mediated model that posited that the association between adolescent and college victimization is mediated via 2 types of risk exposure in the first semester of college: alcohol-related and sexual risk behaviors. METHOD Female adolescents (N = 469) were recruited from the community at the time of high school graduation. They completed baseline assessments as well as follow-ups at the end of the first and second semesters of college. RESULTS Consistent with hypotheses, adolescent sexual victimization was associated indirectly, via high school risk behaviors, with increased first-semester college risk behaviors (i.e., sexual partners, hookups, heavy episodic drinking, and heavy drinking contexts), which were, in turn, strongly predictive of sexual victimization experiences in the first year of college. College risk behaviors partially mediated the significant association between adolescent and first-year college victimization; however, even women without prior victimization faced elevated risk of college victimization with higher levels of college risk behaviors. CONCLUSIONS Women who have experienced adolescent sexual victimization engage in higher levels of risk taking in college, thereby increasing vulnerability to college victimization. Intervention to reduce these primarily alcohol-related risk-taking behaviors may reduce vulnerability to college sexual victimization.

Childhood sexual abuse, relationship satisfaction, and sexual risk taking in a community sample of women

Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) has been proposed to influence both womens adult sexual risk behaviors and the quality of their intimate relationships. Among a household sample of women (n = 732), good fit was obtained for a model in which CSA predicted Wave 1 male partner sexual risk and aggression characteristics, resulting in lower relationship satisfaction, and ultimately in higher numbers of Wave 2 sexual partners. The model was generally replicated among women who entered new relationships at Waves 2 and 3. Partner sexual risk characteristics also were associated with womens risk of sexually transmitted infection from current partner. Elevated sexual risk behaviors among CSA survivors reflect difficulty in establishing stable and safe relationships and may be reduced by interventions aimed at improving intimate relationships.

Qualitative analysis of women's experiences of sexual aggression: Focus on the Role of Alcohol

Womens descriptions of recent sexually aggressive incidents were examined to gain a better understanding of the situations in which sexual aggression occurs, to understand the events from the womans perspective, and to examine the actual and perceived role of alcohol in such incidents. The sample consisted of women who were sexually active and drank moderately to heavily. Classification of incidents according to the circumstances surrounding their occurrence revealed four major sexual aggression situations: date, current/previous relationship, unsuspecting, and set-up. Three major themes emerged through thematic analysis: alcohol contributing to the perpetrators aggression, victims judgment or behavior contributing to the event, and responses to aggression. Quantitative analyses confirmed that a large percentage of incidents involved alcohol or drugs and that perpetrators alcohol/drug consumption was associated with more severe outcomes. Implications for prevention are discussed.

The Impact of Sexual Assault History and Relationship Context on Appraisal of and Responses to Acquaintance Sexual Assault Risk

Although a major predictor of sexual victimization is previous victimization, the mechanism underlying this effect is not well understood. Sexual assault history’s impact on appraisal of and responses to sexual assault risk was examined in an experimental analog study. Intimacy with perpetrator was also examined as a potential contributor to appraisal and responses. Young women varying in sexual assault history were randomly assigned to receive a scenario in which type of perpetrator was manipulated (someone just met, friend, date, boyfriend). Respondents appraised the man’s actions as sexual interest or assault and indicated intentions to respond (resistance and nonresistance). Sexual assault history did not directly influence appraisal or intended responses but had modest indirect effects on resistance via sexual assertiveness. The primary influence on appraisal and responses was perpetrator intimacy. Women facing advances within a more intimate relationship were less likely to appraise those advances as threatening and less likely to resist.

The Reciprocal Relationship Between Sexual Victimization and Sexual Assertiveness

Low sexual assertiveness has been proposed as a possible mechanism through which sexual revictimization occurs, yet evidence for this has been mixed. In this study, prospective path analysis was used to examine the relationship between sexual refusal assertiveness and sexual victimization over time among a community sample of women. Results provide support for a reciprocal relationship, with historical victimization predicting low sexual assertiveness and low sexual assertiveness predicting subsequent victimization. The effect of recent sexual victimization on subsequent sexual assertiveness also was replicated prospectively. These findings suggest that strengthening sexual assertiveness may help reduce vulnerability to future victimization.

The Role of Sexual Precedence in Verbal Sexual Coercion

Experiences of verbal sexual coercion are common and have potential for negative consequences, yet are not well understood. This study used qualitative and descriptive statistics to examine verbal sexual coercion experiences among a community sample of 114 women and explored the role of sexual precedence in these experiences. Analyses revealed that sexual precedence plays an important role in determining how these experiences come about and why women acquiesce to unwanted intercourse. Verbal persuasion and persistence were the most commonly reported tactics. The valence of this verbal persuasion differed qualitatively according to precedence status, with those having a history of sexual precedence using negative persuasion (e.g., threats to relationship) and those with no precedence relying on positive messages (e.g., sweet talk). Most women used direct verbal resistance to indicate their unwillingness to have sex, regardless of precedence status. Womens reasons for compliance and consequences differed qualitatively according to sexual precedence status.

Alcohol and Sexual Aggression Reciprocal Relationships Over Time in a Sample of High-Risk Women

Although alcohol consumption and alcohol-related problems are positively associated with womens experiences of sexual aggression, the direction of causality is not clear. A longitudinal design was used to examine the impact of womens alcohol consumption and alcohol problems on subsequent experiences of sexual aggression and to examine the impact of sexual aggression experiences on subsequent alcohol use and alcohol problems. The sample consisted of 93 single women, ages 20 to 35, who were at elevated risk for both alcohol-related problems and sexual aggression. After controlling for initial sexual aggression, alcohol problems predicted subsequent sexual aggression. Initial sexual aggression did not result in increased alcohol consumption or alcohol-related problems. Previous sexual aggression experiences and alcohol consumption were associated with higher perceived vulnerability to subsequent sexual aggression. Furthermore, perceived vulnerability to sexual aggression was positively associated with actual Time 2 experiences of aggression, suggesting some degree of accuracy in appraisals of risk.