Jennifer Boldero

The relation between self-discrepancies and emotion: the moderating roles of self-guide importance, location relevance, and social self-domain centrality.

In 5 studies, the authors investigated the effects of self-guide importance, domain centrality to self-definition, and self-domain relevance of testing location on relationships between actual-ideal (AI) and actual-ought (AO) discrepancies and emotions. Although no unique relationships occurred for self discrepancies, moderating effects were found for social self-domains. Location relevance overshadowed other moderator effects. In less relevant locations, AI discrepancies were smaller and AO discrepancy-emotion relationships were moderated by self-guide importance. For more important self-domains, AI discrepancies were smaller and AO discrepancies were unrelated to agitation. For less important self-domains, agitation was related to the AO discrepancy and self-guide importance interaction. By suggesting that different self-regulatory strategies minimize the consequences of AI and AO discrepancies, evidence for distinct ideal and ought self-regulation is provided.

Goals, Standards, and the Self: Reference Values Serving Different Functions

We examine reference values used in self-regulation research and identify two functions they fulfill: a standard function and a goal function. The standard function occurs when a reference value represents a desired state for the self in the present whereas the goal function occurs when a reference value represents a desired state for the self in the future. We argue that different factors influence the emotional, motivational, and behavioral outcomes of these functions. The magnitude of any discrepancy with a “standard” is important, whereas for a “goal,” the rate of discrepancy reduction, relative to an “expected” rate, is important. A review of the empirical literature supports these propositions. Consequently, we propose that future research should in-corporate our distinction between these two functions.

Psychosocial development and friendship functions in adolescence

This study concerns the relationship between friendship variables and adolescent psychosocial development, in particular identity and psychosocial intimacy as envisaged by E. Erikson [(1950), Childhood and Society, New York: Norton; (1968), Identity: Youth and Crisis, New York: Norton]. Two hundred and twenty-three secondary school and college students were surveyed regarding friendship networks, beliefs about friendship, functions of friendship in general, and aspects of a best friendship. Intimacy and identity measures were obtained using the Erikson Psychosocial Stage Inventory [D. Rosenthal, R. Gurney, and S. Moore (1981), “From Trust to Intimacy: A New Measure for Examining Eriksons Stages of Psychosocial Development,” Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol. 10, pp. 525–537]. Four developmental style groups (Dual High Scorers, High Identity, High Intimacy, and Dual Low Scorers) were formed from these measures. There were no differences between the sexes in their choice of developmental style. Those in the high-identity-high-intimacy and the high-identity-low-intimacy groups were more satisfied with their friendships, which appeared affectively richer. Sex differences showed that while friendship variables were more strongly associated with development for boys, girls viewed their relationships as closer and ascribed more importance to this closeness.

Self-discrepancies and negative affect: A primer on when to look for specificity, and how to find it

There is substantial evidence that discrepancies within the self-system produce emotional distress. However, whether specific types of discrepancy are related to different types of negative affect remains contentious. At the heart of self-discrepancy theory (SDT: Higgins, 1987, 1989) is the assumption that different types of discrepancies are related to distinctive emotional states, with discrepancies between the actual and ideal selves being uniquely related to dejection-related emotion and discrepancies between the actual and ought selves being uniquely related to agitation-related emotion. Research examining this proposition has demonstrated that the magnitudes of these discrepancies are substantially correlated. As a result, some researchers have questioned whether they are functionally independent (e.g., Tangney, Niedenthal, Covert, & Barlow, 1998). In addition, other researchers have failed to support the hypothesized unique relationships (e.g., Ozgul, Heubeck, Ward, & Wilkinson, 2003). Together these two types of research finding have been interpreted as presenting a challenge to SDT. It is our contention that this interpretation is inaccurate. In this paper, we review the assumptions made when testing for these distinct relationships. Specifically, we examine the necessary conditions under which the functional independence of discrepancies is apparent, and the statistical methods appropriate to test these relationships. We also comment on the measurement of self-discrepancies, and fundamental problems in the interpretation of null findings. We conclude that studies using appropriate methodological and statistical procedures have produced ample evidence that discriminant relationships exist, and we encourage researchers to further investigate the conditions under which these relationships are most apparent.

Do gambling activity patterns predict gambling problems? A latent class analysis of gambling forms among Australian youth

Although gambling frequency and easy access to gambling are predictive of gambling problems among young people, little is known about their patterns of gambling activities. The current study investigated the gambling patterns of a large sample of youth (N = 1061) using latent class analysis. Six activity classes of young gamblers were identified: rare, lottery/scratch card, broad ranging, pool, unrestricted access and heavy gamblers. The classes differed significantly on age, gender, number and type of gambling activities, gambling frequency, problem gambling and amount spent on gambling. In addition, the relationship between problem gambling and the amount spent differed across classes. The results indicate the value of assessing gambling patterns as well as gambling frequency in research examining problem gambling. Although older youth have more opportunity to legally engage in a wider range of gambling activities, young peoples gambling activity patterns are more indicative of potential gambling problems than age.

Gender patterns in environmental consciousness among adolescents

This article identifies several reasons for an interest in gender patterns in environmental concern and knowledge. It then describes the different responses to environmental issues among Year 10 boys and girls in Victorian secondary schools. Although higher environmental consciousness is associ ated with higher parental education, particularly among boys, girls exhibit greater environmental responsibility than boys from the same socio-economic levels. The literature does indicate that wilderness experience contributes to greater environmental concern but the current study suggests that it is mediated by, and is less significant than, gender and socio-economic factors. The current study also suggests that if environmentally responsible behaviour is to be increased, attention should be paid to matters of gender identity and environmental attitudes as well as environmental knowledge.

Self-Lines: A New, Psychometrically Sound, ‘User-Friendly’ Idiographic Technique for Assessing Self-Discrepancies

Self-discrepancy theory [E. T. Higgins, 1987] proposes that discrepancies between self and ‘ideal’ standards are associated with dejection-related emotions, whereas discrepancies between self and ‘ought’ standards are associated with agitation-related emotions. Although there is substantial evidence to support the ideal/ought distinction, the traditional method used to measure self-discrepancies contains some theoretical and conceptual limitations. This paper discusses these limitations, presents a critique of other methods of measuring self-discrepancies and suggests a new measurement technique, the Self-Lines measure. This new approach is consistent with the theoretical underpinning of self-discrepancy theory. A pilot study suggests that this approach is feasible and two comparative studies demonstrate the validity and advantages of the Self-Lines measure.

Older Chinese Immigrants’ Relationships With Their Children: A Literature Review From a Solidarity–Conflict Perspective

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY Older Chinese immigrants are one of the largest and fastest growing groups in Western societies. This article used the solidarity-conflict model to synthesize current research examining parent-child relationships in this group. METHODS A comprehensive literature search was conducted in the CINAHL, Medline, and PubMed databases to identify relevant articles. A narrative approach was used to review the literature. RESULTS Thirty-six articles were identified. Compared with Caucasians, older Chinese immigrants are more likely to live with children and have higher filial expectations. However, considerable numbers live independently. Of these, most live in public housing and rely on the community rather than their children for instrumental help. Many older Chinese immigrants have adjusted their filial expectations and valued being independent. They also provide extensive household help to their children. There are indications of intergenerational conflict, probably due to generational differences in attitudes toward life and limited intergenerational contact. IMPLICATIONS This review suggests that although filial piety continues to influence older parent-child relationship in Chinese immigrant families, many changes have occurred. These findings have important implications for service planning and delivery for this cultural group. This review also provides evidence for the utility of the solidarity-conflict model.

Borderline personality disorder features: The role of self‐discrepancies and self‐complexity

OBJECTIVES Borderline personality disorder (BPD) involves disordered self-conceptions, along with dysphoria and anxiety. The present study examined the role of actual-ideal (AI) and actual-ought (AO) self-discrepancies, and self-complexity as predictors of borderline personality features in a student population. METHOD AI and AO self-discrepancy magnitudes across all self-domains were assessed, along with self-complexity, idiographically and nomothetically. Borderline personality features were assessed using subscales of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2). RESULTS Both AI and AO self-discrepancies were directly related to BPD personality features, in that those with larger self-discrepancies of both types reported more features. Self-complexity had no direct relationship to BPD personality features; rather, it moderated the relationship between AI, but not AO, self-discrepancies and BPD personality features. For individuals low in self-complexity, a stronger relationship between AI self-discrepancies and BPD personality features existed. CONCLUSIONS This study is novel in its consideration of the impact of features of the self-system on BPD personality features. It highlights the important role that AO self-discrepancies, and the combined role of AI self-discrepancies and self-complexity, have in increasing vulnerability to BPD. The findings suggest that different pathways might be involved in the vulnerability to BPD, depending on self-discrepancy type and level of self-complexity.

An evaluation of the factor structure of the Problem Gambling Severity Index

The Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) was designed to assess gambling problems in community samples. It has 12 items, nine of which are scored to determine problem gambling level. Although recent studies have evaluated the PGSIs psychometric properties, these have not used methods best suited for this task. The present study used both confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and item response theory (IRT) modelling to assess these properties for a college student sample (N = 366). The scale was unidimensional and had varying item factor loadings that were identical for male and female participants. The latent gambling problem characteristic obtained from the 12-item set was more strongly correlated with gambling frequencies, was reliable and provided more information than a scale comprised of unweighted items or the latent characteristic obtained from, or a scale comprised of, the scored items. Future research should consider using the weighted 12-item scale to assess gambling problems.