Jennifer Cumming

Motivational Profiles and Psychological Skills Use within Elite Youth Sport

This study investigated associations between achievement goal orientations and reported psychological skill use in sport. Five hundred seventy three elite young athletes completed the Perceptions of Success Questionnaire (POSQ; Roberts, Treasure, & Balague, 1998) and the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS; Thomas, Murphy, & Hardy, 1999). Cluster analysis revealed three distinct goal profile groups: Cluster 1—Higher-task/Moderate-ego (n = 260); Cluster 2—Lower-task/Higher-ego (n = 120); and Cluster 3—Moderate-task/Lower-ego (n = 119). A MANOVA revealed a significant multivariate effect, Pillais Trace = .11, F(16, 1076) = 3.75, p = .001, η2 = .05, with post hoc tests determining that higher-task/moderate-ego athletes reported using significantly more Imagery, Goal setting, and positive Self-talk skills when compared with Lower-task/Higher-ego and/or Moderate-task/Lower-ego athletes. These findings are discussed with respect to the potential role that achievement goals play in the application and development of psychological skills in youth sport.

Investigating the Relationship between Exercise Imagery, Leisure-Time Exercise Behavior, and Self-Efficacy

The present study investigated the relationship between imagery use, leisure-time exercise, and exercise self-efficacy within a diverse range of exercisers. One hundred and sixty-two participants (Mage = 23.84; SD = 7.09; 97 female, 65 male) completed the Exercise Imagery Inventory (EII; Giacobbi, Hausenblas, & Penfield, 2005), the Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire (Godin & Shepherd, 1985), and an exercise self-efficacy scale (Rodgers & Sullivan, 2001) directly following an exercise session. The EII was also modified to include two rating scales of visual and kinesthetic imagery ability. Separate hierarchical multiple regression analyses determined that appearance-health imagery significantly predicted exercise behavior and coping efficacy, and technique imagery significantly predicted task efficacy (all p < .001). Furthermore, exercisers’ abilities to create appearance-health images moderated the relationship between imagery frequency and leisure-time exercise, coping efficacy, and scheduling efficacy (all p < .05). These findings suggest that appearance-health and technique imagery may lead to an increase in exercise behavior and self-efficacy beliefs.

Exploring a modified conceptualization of imagery direction and golf putting performance

Abstract This study investigated a modified conceptualization of imagery direction and its subsequent effects on golf putting performance. A progression in the directional imagery literature was made by eliminating the need for participants to intentionally create persuasively harmful images as they rarely occur, if at all, in the sporting domain. Thus, we explored a more ecologically valid conceptualization of debilitative imagery and measured the effects on sports performance (golf putting). Seventy five participants were randomly allocated to one of three conditions: (a) facilitative imagery, (b) suppressive imagery (debilitative), or (c) no‐imagery control. After performing imagery, the facilitative imagery group successfully putted significantly more golf balls than the suppressive imagery group. This finding suggests that a non‐persuasive conceptualization of debilitative imagery can result in disparate effects on performance compared to facilitative imagery. In doing so, this adds ecological strength to the imagery direction literature by suggesting debilitative imagery need not be persuasive to influence motor skill performance.

Types and functions of athletes’ imagery: Testing predictions from the applied model of imagery use by examining effectiveness

Abstract Predictions from the applied model of imagery use (Martin, Moritz, & Hall, 1999) were tested by examining the perceived effectiveness of five imagery types in serving specific functions. Potential moderation effects of this relationship by imagery ability and perspective were also investigated. Participants were 155 athletes from 32 sports, and materials included a chart for rating imagery effectiveness constructed specifically for the study as well as a modified version of the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ; Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998). Results supported the predictions for cognitive but not motivational imagery types, and MG‐M imagery was perceived to be the most effective imagery type for motivational functions. Significant differences existed between imagery types regarding frequency and ease of imaging. The relationship between frequency and effectiveness was not moderated by imagery ability or perspective, and athletes who imaged more frequently found imagery more effective and easier to do.

Where, when, and how : A quantitative account of dance imagery

(2007). Where, When, and How. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport: Vol. 78, No. 4, pp. 390-395.

Incongruent imagery interferes with action initiation

It has been suggested that representing an action through observation and imagery share neural processes with action execution. In support of this view, motor-priming research has shown that observing an action can influence action initiation. However, there is little motor-priming research showing that imagining an action can modulate action initiation. The current study examined whether action imagery could prime subsequent execution of a reach and grasp action. Across two motion analysis tracking experiments, 40 participants grasped an object following congruent or incongruent action imagery. In Experiment 1, movement initiation was faster following congruent compared to incongruent imagery, demonstrating that imagery can prime the initiation of grasping. In Experiment 2, incongruent imagery resulted in slower movement initiation compared to a no-imagery control. These data show that imagining a different action to that which is performed can interfere with action production. We propose that the most likely neural correlates of this interference effect are brain regions that code imagined and executed actions. Further, we outline a plausible mechanistic account of how priming in these brain regions through imagery could play a role in action cognition.

The functional equivalence between movement imagery, observation, and execution influences imagery ability

Abstract Based on literature identifying movement imagery, observation, and execution to elicit similar areas of neural activity, research has demonstrated that movement imagery and observation successfully prime movement execution. To investigate whether movement and observation could prime ease of imaging from an external visual-imagery perspective, an internal visual-imagery perspective, and kinesthetic modality, 36 participants (M age = 20.58; SD = 3.11; 18 women and 18 men) completed an adapted version of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised under four modes of delivery (movement prime, external observation prime, internal observation prime, and image-only). The results revealed that ease of imaging was significantly greater during the movement and observation prime conditions compared to the image-only condition (p < .05). Specifically when priming external visual imagery and internal visual imagery, observation facilitated ease of imaging only when the perspective was congruent with the imagery perspective. The results support the use of movement and observation to facilitate ease of imaging, but highlight the importance of considering the visual perspective when using observation.

Not Just How One Feels, but What One Images? The Effects of Imagery Use on Affective Responses to Moderate Exercise

Abstract Previous research has highlighted a need for identifying the psychological strategies which best maximize the affective responses to exercise (e.g., Blanchard, Rodgers, & Gauvin, 2004). The present study compared the effects on affective responses of using different imagery types while exercising. Participants (N = 75, mean age = 20.2 years, SD = 1.33) were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 imagery conditions (i.e., enjoyment imagery, energy imagery, or technique imagery). Affect was recorded before and after 20 min of moderate intensity cycle ergometry (50% Heart Rate Reserve) using the Exercise‐Induced Feeling Inventory (EFI; Gauvin & Rejeski, 1993) and the Feeling Scale (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989). Controlling for affect reported before the exercise bout, the enjoyment imagery group reported significantly higher levels of postexercise valence than the energy and technique imagery groups and higher revitalization than the technique imagery group. These findings indicate that enjoyment imagery could be used to further improve the affective benefits associated with exercise

Exploring Common Ground: Comparing the Imagery of Dancers and Aesthetic Sport Performers

The imagery of aesthetic sport athletes and dancers was compared, and the relationship between imagery and self-confidence was explored. Materials included the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ; Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998), the Dance Imagery Questionnaire (DIQ; Nordin & Cumming, 2006), the Trait Sport Confidence Inventory (TSCI; Vealey, 1986), and open-ended questions. Participants were 144 dancers and 124 aesthetic athletes, mainly female, 18.98 (SD = 3.91) years old, and ranging from recreational to elite levels. Aesthetic athletes engaged in less imagery of roles and movement quality than dancers, and seemingly less imagery overall. Dancers at higher levels imaged more frequently than lower level dancers, but this was not the case for athletes. Performers who imaged more frequently were more confident, and for dancers the DIQ predicted additional variance in self-confidence beyond that offered by the SIQ. Altogether, the DIQ might be suitable for investigating the imagery of aesthetic athletes as well as dancers.

Seeing the Difference: Developing Effective Imagery Scripts for Athletes

This article provides guidelines for coaches and applied practitioners to create effective imagery scripts for use with their athletes. Supported by the imagery literature, we describe the planning, writing, delivering, and evaluating stages of script development. We explain the importance of considering the five Ws (Who, Where and When, Why, and What) in the planning stage, and use our own case study to provide specific examples of how we considered these when writing our own script. Finally we discuss different ways of delivering and evaluating the imagery script to ensure it is effective and continues to be over time. An example imagery script is provided along with a checklist coaches can use when developing their own script.