Jennifer J. Vogel-Walcutt

Cognitive Load Theory vs. Constructivist Approaches: Which Best Leads to Efficient, Deep Learning?

Computer-assisted learning, in the form of simulation-based training, is heavily focused upon by the military. Because computer-based learning offers highly portable, reusable, and cost-efficient training options, the military has dedicated significant resources to the investigation of instructional strategies that improve learning efficiency within this environment. In order to identify efficient instructional strategies, this paper investigates the two major learning theories that dominate the recent literature on optimizing knowledge acquisition: cognitive load theory (CLT) and constructivism. According to CLT, instructional guidance that promotes efficient learning is most beneficial. Constructivist approaches, in contrast, emphasize the importance of developing a conceptual understanding of the learning material. Supporters of these theories have debated the merits and shortcomings of both positions. However, in the absence of consensus, instructional designers lack a well-defined model for training complex skills in a rapid, efficient manner. The current study investigates the relative utility of CLT and constructivist-based approaches for teaching complex skills using a military command and control task. Findings suggest that the acquisition of procedural, declarative, and conceptual knowledge, as well as decision-making skills, did not differ as a function of the type of instruction used. However, integrated knowledge was slightly better retained by the group provided with CLT-based instruction. These results are contrary to our expectation that constructivist approaches, which focus on the development and integration of information, would yield better performance in an applied problem-based environment. Thus, while contemporary researchers continue to defend the use of constructivist strategies for teaching, our research supports earlier findings that question the utility, efficiency, and impact of these strategies in applied domains.

A review of eye-tracking applications as tools for training

Substantial literature exists regarding how eye-tracking systems can be used to measure cognitive load and how these measurements can be useful for adapting training in real time. Much of the published literature discusses the applications and limitations of the research and typically provides recommendations for improvement. This review assesses these articles collectively to provide a clearer solution for implementing eye-tracking systems into a training environment. Although limitations exist for using eye tracking as an interface tool, gaze and pupillary response have been successfully used to reflect changes in cognitive load and are starting to be incorporated into adaptive training systems, although issues are still present with differentiating pupil responses from simultaneous psychological effects. Additionally, current eye-tracking systems and data analysis software have proven accurate enough for general use, but issues including system cost and software integration prevent this technology from becoming commercialized for use in common instructional settings.

Review: Instructional strategies framework for military training systems

In an effort to improve training efficiency, the military has focused much attention on the development of replicable and generalizable training systems. As a result, a substantial number of companies and contractors have spent significant time and money developing a wide-array of simulators, virtual reality programs, and the like. However, many are designed without considering the effectiveness and efficiency of embedded instructional strategies. In response, the current review argues for the creation of improved training systems through the incorporation of a repository of research-based instructional strategies that can be employed across the entire training cycle. Using a grounded theory method, this review consolidates the vast literature on instructional strategies from the fields of education and the cognitive sciences into a coherent framework that can be used to enhance the design of military training systems. In particular, this review is intended to provide a concise, organized, and practical framework for the selection and implementation of research-based instructional strategies relevant to military training goals.

Differential impact of two types of metacognitive prompting provided during simulation-based training

The purpose of the current study was to test the differential impact of two forms of metacognitive prompts on knowledge acquisition and application during simulation-based training. Participants in the experimental conditions were prompted to construct sentences by connecting declarative words (Words Group) or conceptual phrases (Phrases Group) related to the training material from two columns. Performance was then compared across conditions during an assessment scenario that did not include prompting. Overall, results provide support for the effectiveness of metacognitive prompting generally, when compared to the Control Group that did not receive prompting. Further, some support was found for providing word-based prompts over more conceptual phrase-based prompts, suggesting that the phrases may have distracted or overloaded learners. Implications for further investigation into the effects of different types of metacognitive support are discussed.

Social-Emotional Functioning of Elementary-Age Deaf Children: A Profile Analysis

Discussion and study of the social-emotional development of deaf and hard of hearing children, though extensive, has yet to provide an accurate understanding of the differences between deaf and hearing children. Consequently, the goal of the researchers was to conduct a profile analysis to determine similarities and differences between the two groups. The sample consisted of 20 hearing and 20 deaf children ages 8–11 years. All of the deaf children were enrolled in a Simultaneous Communication magnet program. Significant differences were found in two areas: school interest and on-task behavior. Overall, however, data from the study showed few differences between hearing and deaf children. The researchers recommend that current interventions be reconsidered on the basis of these results.

Increasing Efficiency in Military Learning: Theoretical Considerations and Practical Applications

Given the fundamental importance of higher-order cognitive skills for military personnel, increasing learning efficiency during training is paramount. The current article expands upon the state-based information-loss processing model, a comprehensive framework elucidating the processes involved in acquiring higher-order cognitive skills, to enumerate best practices for military training. Emphasis is placed on identifying empirically supported, state-of-the-art learning efficiency strategies and methodologies to address points of information loss throughout the learning process. Implications and pragmatic recommendations for simulation-based military training are discussed.

Embedding Metacognitive Prompts during SBT to Improve Knowledge Acquisition

Changes in battlefield dynamics increasingly require trainees to acquire the rich and deep knowledge necessary to make decisions in complex, novel situations. We investigate how metacognitive prompts during training may support this need by enhancing the acquisition and application of knowledge within a scenario-based training context. The data suggest differential outcomes are dependent upon the type of assessment, with metacognitive supported training producing benefits to measures of knowledge acquisition but hindering performance in a transfer task. These results are discussed in the context of variations in metacognition training and how differing forms of knowledge acquisition are required to better understand the impact of training.

Making Metacognition Explicit: Developing a Theoretical Foundation for Metacognitive Prompting During Scenario-based Training

In this paper we describe a set of metacognition related training interventions that can be introduced in advanced scenario-based training systems. A long line of research in the cognitive and learning sciences has shown that knowledge acquisition is more effective when learners reflect upon their comprehension processes. We support this view and discuss how instruction can assist trainees in monitoring their learning in order to facilitate overall retention and transfer. We focus on the multidimensional nature of metacognition and emphasize the regulatory component of metacognition. Regulation involves an active process engaged by the trainee in service of learning. We present a theoretical framework that describes how this can be developed as a means of instructional strategy in preparation for, during execution of, and in reflection upon, a given learning episode.

Advancing the Science of Training in Simulation-Based Training

Recent changes in battlefield dynamics are driving the need to train higher-order cognitive skills such as planning and decision making over the more common focus of declarative knowledge and procedural skills. These changes have therefore created a need for changes in military training processes. Some questions that arise from this need include how to ensure that such higher-order skills and knowledge are meaningfully retained in long-term memory, how to support military personnel in applying the proper knowledge and skills under stressful operational conditions, and what pedagogical strategies can be applied to best train these skills. To deal with these issues, the military has pursued a number of research and development projects investigating scenario-based training in simulators. The notion is that appropriately designed scenarios can help the learner connect task elements in such a way that knowledge is better integrated, better retained, and more easily applied even under demanding operational contexts. While scenario-based training (SBT) remains one of the more popular approaches for teaching complex skills, the instantiation of complementary learning strategies within this context has not been fully explored. Further, most simulators do not support the SBT instructional approach; instead human instructors must carry out the steps of SBT themselves. Additionally, developing SBT scenarios and other instructional content remains challenging and these processes, too, remain under-supported. Thus, extending SBT to include complementary learning strategies as well as automating certain components of SBT would significantly improve the effectiveness and ease the implementation of this method. As the military and industrial communities continue to design and develop scenario-based simulation systems, it seems prudent to investigate technologies and pedagogy that can improve their impact. In this symposium we describe a multidisciplinary effort, funded by the Office of Naval Research, designed to address the multi-faceted needs of improving scenario-based simulations to meet the needs of the modern warfighter. We take a two-pronged approach to this effort involving complementary technological and pedagogical research thrusts. Specifically, we first leverage findings from the cognitive and learning sciences regarding the learning process and development of expertise in order to implement them within the context of SBT. Second, we utilize developments in the computational and information sciences to examine how scenario generation and computational models can support the automation of SBT. Finally, we conclude by illustrating how these projects are closely coupled and monitored using methods developed for impact assessment. In this overview we briefly describe these approaches and highlight their contribution to the extant science of SBT and their relevance to military training.

Augmented Cognition and Training in the Laboratory: DVTE System Validation

As the modern workplace becomes more complex, the training community needs to develop new strategies to continute to create a competent workforce. The emerging field of augmented cognition may be able to contribute greatly to increasing training capability through the use of neurophysiological measures that support real-time performance and can be used to satisfy some of the requirements of an automated intelligent tutoring system. The first step to building this system is to design and validate a testbed that can be used with future efforts to target effective mitigation strategies with learning efficiency. In this study, participants watched a computerized instructional presentation and then engaged in a practice CFF scenario in the simulator. When finished, each participant was assigned to either a low or high task load test scenario. In both, the goal was to destroy five enemy tanks. Some participants were also asked to simultaneously execute a secondary radar monitoring task. Both the National Aeronautics and Space Administrations Task Load Index (NASA-TLX) and the MRQ were used to assess the validity of the testbed. Results from both measures indicate that a significant difference exists between the two levels of workload and further, we can distinguish between the subscales within each measurement tool. Thus, the overarching goal of this study was achieved. High and low workload scenarios were created and validated. Ultimatly, they will be used as a testbed of scenarios to address the questions surrounding the use of neurophysiological equipment to impact individual learning patterns.