Jennifer Manlove

Early Motherhood in an Intergenerational Perspective: The Experiences of a British Cohort

Using nationally representative longitudinal data from Great Britain, this study examines the fertility patterns of daughters of teen mothers. It tests several mechanisms to help explain how early motherhood is reproduced across generations, including an earlier inherited age of menarche, poor family and educational environments, and an early ideal age of childbearing among daughters of teen mothers. Some support is provided for all mechanisms except for an early inherited age at menarche. Even after controlling for family, school, and individual factors, daughters of teen mothers were more likely to have a birth in their teens and into their early 20s. Key Words: intergenerational effects, teen motherhood. Public concern surrounding the issue of teenage motherhood recently has accelerated in several industrialized countries because of high rates of teen motherhood, the public sector costs incurred by early childbearers, and the projected negative life outcomes for both mothers and children. Recent research on the long-term effects of teen motherhood has rejected a deterministic model that posits an inevitably negative life trajectory for teen mothers (Furstenberg, Brooks-Gunn, & Morgan, 1987). However, although many teen mothers have been able to avoid poverty or make the transition out of poverty, their children are frequently worse off than other children. Specifically, the experiences of children born to teen mothers reflect the obstacles they face from having access to fewer economic resources, parents with lower educational levels, and less parental involvement and cognitive stimulation (Furstenberg, Levine, & Brooks-Gunn, 1990; Hofferth, 1987; Moore, Morrison, & Greene, in press). However, the extent to which early motherhood is reproduced across generations and the mechanisms through which this happens have received little research attention. This article uses data from the British National Child Development Study (NCDS) to explore intergenerational patterns in teen motherhood. Specifically, it tests whether daughters of teen mothers have different fertility patterns than other teens and whether or not they are more likely to become teen mothers themselves. The article extends existing research by examining intervening mechanisms-including age at menarche, family and educational environments, and early ideal ages of childbearing among daughters of teen mothers-to help explain how early motherhood may be reproduced across generations. Although the data were collected in Great Britain, the results illuminate factors involved in the reproduction of disadvantage across generations in many industrialized nations. TEEN BIRTH RATES IN GREAT BRITAIN AND THE UNITED STATES Lessons from the study of Great Britain can be cautiously applied to the U.S. Demographic trends in the U.S. teen birth rate are more similar to Great Britain than to other European countries. The British teen birth rate, although much lower than the rate in the U.S., remains higher than teen birth rates in most other industrialized countries (Jones et al., 1986). Teen motherhood receives extensive media attention as a social issue in Great Britain, as it does in the U.S. (McRobbie, 1991; Phoenix, 1991). Also, in both the U.S. and Great Britain, a growing proportion of teen births are nonmarital. Figure 1 presents trends in teen birth rates for Great Britain and the U.S. The British teen birth rate rose steadily during the 1960s until it peaked in 1971 at 51 births per thousand. After that, it declined in the 1970s and has remained between 28 and 33 per thousand throughout the 1980s and 1990s. The U.S. teen birth rate peaked in the mid1950s and declined steadily until the mid-1980s. Then it rose by nearly a quarter and leveled off to 57 per thousand in 1995 (Moore, Romano, & Oakes, 1996). In 1965, the British teen birth rate was 73% as high as the U.S. birth rate for Whites. (Because there was a very low percentage of nonWhite British teens at that time and 99% of the NCDS sample is White, the comparison group in this figure is U. …

Contraceptive use patterns across teens’ sexual relationships: The role of relationships, partners, and sexual histories

By using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we examine how adolescent relationship characteristics, partner attributes, and sexual relationship histories are associated with contraceptive use and consistency, incorporating random effects to control for respondent-level unobserved heterogeneity. Analyses show that teens’ contraceptive use patterns vary across relationships. Teens with more-homogamous partners, with more-intimate relationships, and who communicate about contraception before sex have greater odds of contraceptive use and/or consistency. Teens in romantic relationships, and who are older when engaging in sex for the first time, have greater odds of ever using contraceptives but reduced odds of always using contraceptives. Teens continue habits from previous relationships: teens with experience practicing contraceptive consistency and females who previously have used hormonal contraceptive methods are better able to maintain consistency in subsequent relationships. Also, relationship and partner characteristics are less important for females who previously used hormonal methods.

Pathways from Family Religiosity to Adolescent Sexual Activity and Contraceptive Use

CONTEXT Few studies with nationally representative longitudinal data have examined whether and how family religiosity is associated with adolescent sexual and contraceptive behavior. METHODS Data from the 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth were used to examine associations between a multidimensional measure of family religiosity assessed during early adolescence and reproductive health outcomes (sexual activity, number of partners and consistent contraceptive use) at age 17. Pathways through which family religiosity is associated with these outcomes were identified using structural equation models. RESULTS Family religiosity was negatively associated with adolescent sexual activity, both directly (beta, -0.14) and indirectly (-0.02). The indirect association was mediated by family cohesion (as reflected in parental monitoring among the entire sample and among males, and in parent-teenager relationship quality and family routine activities among females) and negative peer behaviors. Greater family religiosity was indirectly associated with having fewer sexual partners (-0.03) and with using contraceptives consistently (0.02); these relationships were mediated through later age at first sex, more positive peer environments and higher levels of parental monitoring and awareness. However, among sexually active males (but not females), family religiosity was directly and negatively associated with contraceptive consistency (-0.11). CONCLUSION Cohesive family environments and positive peer networks contribute to reduced levels of risky sexual behavior among adolescents from religious families. Parents who monitor their childrens activities and peer environments, engage their families in regular activities and foster strong parent-child relationships can help reduce risky sexual behavior, regardless of family religiosity. Parental involvement in prevention programs may help reduce rates of teenage pregnancy and STDs.

Explaining demographic trends in teenage fertility 1980-1995.

CONTEXT The teenage birthrate rose sharply in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and then declined in the 1990s. Attempts to explain these changes have failed to account for the changing environment in which adolescents live. METHODS Data from the 1995 cycle of the National Survey of Family Growth are used to compare the experiences of three cohorts of teenage females in the 1980s and 1990s. A life-course framework is used to examine trends in characteristics of adolescents and adolescent mothers over time, and event-history analyses are conducted to determine which characteristics are associated with the risk of a teenage birth in each cohort. A comparison of the predicted probabilities from hazard analyses shows how changes in the context of adolescence across the cohorts help explain changes in the probability of a teenage birth over time. RESULTS Factors associated with the increase in the teenage birthrate in the 1980s include negative changes in family environments (such as increases in family disruption) and an increase in the proportion of teenagers having sex at an early age. Factors associated with the recent decline in the teenage birthrate include positive changes in family environments (such as improvements in maternal education), formal sex education programs and discussions with parents about sex, stabilization in the proportion of teenagers having sex at an early age and improved contraceptive use at first sex. Sexually experienced teenagers in the mid- 1990s were younger, on average, at first sex than were their counterparts in the 1980s, and thus are at an increased risk of a teenage birth. Partner factors, including nonvoluntary first sexual experiences, were not associated with the risk of a adolescent birth in any cohort. CONCLUSIONS Programs to further reduce the teenage birthrate should take into account the role of family stability, parent-child communication, sex education programs and engagement in school, as well as attempt to reduce the proportion of adolescents having sex at an early age and to improve contraceptive use. The increasing risk levels among sexually experienced teenagers suggest that current programs may be reducing sexual activity among adolescents already at a low risk of a teenage birth, without addressing the needs of those at highest risk.

Relationship Characteristics and Contraceptive Use Among Young Adults

CONTEXT Young adults have high rates of unintended childbearing and STDs, yet little research has examined the role of relationship characteristics in their contraceptive use. METHODS Data collected from the 2002-2005 rounds of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth yielded a sample of 4,014 dating relationships among sexually active 18-26-year-olds. Bivariate analysis and multivariate logistic and multinomial logistic regressions assessed associations between relationship characteristics and contraceptive use at last sex. RESULTS In three-quarters of the relationships, respondents had used some method at last intercourse; respondents in 26% of the relationships had used a condom only, in 26% a hormonal method only and in 23% dual methods. Compared with respondents in relationships in which first sex occurred within two months of starting to date, those who first had sex before dating were more likely to have used any method at last sex (odds ratio, 1.4), particularly condoms or dual methods (relative risk ratio, 1.5 for each). The relative risk of using a hormonal method only, rather than no method or condoms only, increased with relationship duration (1.01) and level of intimacy (1.1-1.2). Discussing marriage or cohabitation was associated with reduced odds of having used any method (0.7) and a reduced relative risk of having used condoms alone or dual methods (0.6 for each). Increasing levels of partner conflict and asymmetry were also linked to reduced odds of any method use (0.97 and 0.90, respectively). CONCLUSIONS Prevention programs should address relationship context in contraceptive decision making, perhaps by combining relationship and sex education curricula to foster communication and negotiation skills.

Trends in Sexual Experience, Contraceptive Use, and Teenage Childbearing: 1992–2002

PURPOSE To examine how cohort trends in family, individual, and relationship characteristics are linked to trends in adolescent reproductive health outcomes to provide a better understanding of factors behind recent declines in teenage birth rates. METHODS We examine a sample of three cohorts of females and males aged 15-19 in 1992, 1997, and 2002, based on retrospective information from the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth. We identify how family, individual, and relationship characteristics are associated with the transition to sexual intercourse, contraceptive use at first sex, and the transition to a teen birth. RESULTS Cohort trends and multivariate analyses indicate changes in family and relationship characteristics among American teens have been associated with positive trends in reproductive health since the early 1990s. Factors associated with improvement in adolescent reproductive health include positive changes in family environments (including increases in parental education and a reduced likelihood of being born to a teen mother) and positive trends in sexual relationships (including an increasing age at first sex and reductions in older partners). These positive trends may be offset, in part, by negative changes in family environments (including an increased likelihood of being born to unmarried parents) and the changing racial/ethnic composition of the teen population. CONCLUSIONS Recent increases in the U.S. teen birth rate highlight the continued importance of improving reproductive health outcomes. Our research suggests that it is important for programs to take into consideration how family, individual, and relationship environments influence decision-making about sex, contraception, and childbearing.

Nonmarital School-Age Motherhood Family, Individual, and School Characteristics

Despite a voluminous literature on the determinants of adokscent parenthood, little research exists on school-kvel influences on nonmartal, school-age motherhood. To address this gap, analyses of nationally representative data were conducted to examine individual, family, and school-level predictors of nonmarital motherhood between 8th grade and 12th grade. All independent variables were measured in 8th grade, and the analyses were repeated separately for Black adolescents and White adolescents. The analyses indicated that school safety was an important predictor of nonmarital motherhood. However, school context did not overridefamily and individual-level effects. Low individual educational perfonnance measures, such as lower test scores and self-reported grades, predicted a higher risk of early motherhood, as did being held back in school and repeatedly changing schools. A substantial level of involvement in school clubs and religious organizations was associated with a lower risk of school-age motherhood.

Community Opportunity, Perceptions of Opportunity, and the Odds of an Adolescent Birth:

The ability of the opportunity cost framework to predict the risk of a teen birth is tested by analyzing the relationship between adolescents’ perceptions of opportunity and the odds of a teen birth across levels of community opportunity. Patterns of this relationship are compared across African American, Latina, and White teens and across socioeconomic status (SES) level. High educational expectations protect Whites, Latinas, and low-SES teens from low-opportunity communities from a teen birth.

Immigration Measures and Reproductive Health Among Hispanic Youth: Findings from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1997-2003

PURPOSE To explore relationships between immigration measures and risk of reproductive and sexual events among U.S. Hispanic adolescents. METHODS We examined generation status, language in the home and country of origin in relation to sexual activity, contraception, and childbearing among 1614 Hispanic adolescents, using nationally representative 1997-2003 longitudinal data. Multivariable analyses controlled for potentially confounding variables. Tests for effect modification by gender and Mexican origin were conducted. RESULTS Fewer first generation adolescents transitioned to sexual intercourse before age 18 (odds ratio [OR]=.80, 95% confidence interval [CI]=.66-.98) and fewer first and second generation sexually active teens used contraceptives consistently at age 17 (OR=.32, 95% CI=.17-.60 and OR=.50, 95% CI=.31-.80, respectively) than third-generation teens. Language was similarly associated with the transition to sexual intercourse and contraceptive practices. Versus teens of Mexican origin, teens of Puerto Rican origin and origins other than Cuba and Central/South America had greater odds of becoming sexually active; youth of all origins except Central/South America had fewer multiple live births (OR=.14-.31). Gender modified the effects of generation on consistent use of contraceptives and condoms at age 17. Gender also modified the effect of country of origin on transitioning to sexual intercourse before age 18 years. CONCLUSIONS Results expand on previous observations that generation, language, and country of origin are predictors of reproductive and sexual risks for Hispanic adolescents. These immigration measures may therefore be useful in targeting community and clinical preventive services.

The relationship context of nonmarital childbearing in the U.S.

Using Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort data, we present estimates of nonmarital births in the United States in 2001, both within and outside of cohabiting unions. We additionally examine how mother and father characteristics are associated with the relationship context at birth, and assess racial/ethnic differences in these relationships. We find that 52% of nonmarital births (and 19% of all births) occur within cohabitating unions—a substantial increase in cohabiting births since the early 1990s. The increase in cohabiting births among white and Hispanic women largely reflects a shift from marital to cohabiting births, while the increase in cohabiting births among black women largely reflects a shift from single to cohabiting births. Mother and father characteristics, including marital and fertility histories, are associated with relationship status at birth. However, with the exception of mother’s education, only the association between father characteristics and relationship status at birth vary by race and ethnicity.