Jennifer S. Zakrajsek

Social Norms and Risk Perception: Predictors of Distracted Driving Behavior Among Novice Adolescent Drivers

Purpose: Adolescent drivers are at elevated crash risk due to distracted driving behavior (DDB). Understanding parental and peer influences on adolescent DDB may aid future efforts to decrease crash risk. We examined the influence of risk perception, sensation seeking, as well as descriptive and injunctive social norms on adolescent DDB using the theory of normative social behavior. Methods: 403 adolescents (aged 16–18 years) and their parents were surveyed by telephone. Survey instruments measured self-reported sociodemographics, DDB, sensation seeking, risk perception, descriptive norms (perceived parent DDB, parent self-reported DDB, and perceived peer DDB), and injunctive norms (parent approval of DDB and peer approval of DDB). Hierarchical multiple linear regression was used to predict the influence of descriptive and injunctive social norms, risk perception, and sensation seeking on adolescent DDB. Results: 92% of adolescents reported regularly engaging in DDB. Adolescents perceived that their parents and peers participated in DDB more frequently than themselves. Adolescent risk perception, parent DDB, perceived parent DDB, and perceived peer DDB were predictive of adolescent DDB in the regression model, but parent approval and peer approval of DDB were not predictive. Risk perception and parental DDB were stronger predictors among males, whereas perceived parental DDB was stronger for female adolescents. Conclusions: Adolescent risk perception and descriptive norms are important predictors of adolescent distracted driving. More study is needed to understand the role of injunctive normative influences on adolescent DDB. Effective public health interventions should address parental role modeling, parental monitoring of adolescent driving, and social marketing techniques that correct misconceptions of norms related to around driver distraction and crash risk.

Efficacy of a brief group parent-teen intervention in driver education to reduce teenage driver injury risk: a pilot study

The purpose of this study was to test the efficacy of an adapted Checkpoints Program designed to increase parental limits on novice teen independent driving under high-risk conditions. Twenty-seven class sessions with a minimum of 5 dyads each were delivered in driver education to 231 parent–teen dyads. Entire driving school classes were randomized to Checkpoints Program or comparison group sessions, both led by a trained health educator. At licensure, compared with parents in the comparison group, treatment parents had increased awareness of teen driving risk and were more likely to have completed a parent–teen driving agreement and met Checkpoints recommendations for restrictions on teen driving in inclement weather and road types. They were also marginally more likely to have met Checkpoints restrictions on driving with teen passengers. This study indicates that it is feasible to implement the Checkpoints Program in driver education with positive effects on parent management practices.

Translation to Primary Care of an Effective Teen Safe Driving Program for Parents.

Addressing teen driver crashes, this study adapted an effective CheckpointsTM program for parents of teen drivers for dissemination by primary care practitioners (PCPs) and the web; distributed the PCP/web program through pediatric practices; and examined dissemination to/implementation by parents. The website, youngDRIVERparenting.org , and brief intervention protocol were developed. PCPs delivered interventions and materials to parents, referred them to the website, and completed follow-up surveys. Google Analytics assessed parents’ website use. Most PCPs reported delivering interventions with fidelity, and thought the program important and feasible. Brief interventions/website referrals, averaging 4.4 minutes, were delivered to 3465 (87%) of 3990 eligible parents by 133 PCPs over an 18-week average. Website visits (1453) were made by 42% of parents, who spent on average 3:53 minutes viewing 4.2 topics. This program costs little (its website, training and promotional materials are available) and could be one component of a comprehensive approach to reducing teen driver crashes.

Using naturalistic driving data to better understand the driving exposure and patterns of older drivers

ABSTRACT Objective: The aging of the population in the United States and elsewhere has brought increasing attention to the issue of safe driving and mobility among older adults. The overall objective of this research was to use naturalistic data collection to better understand driving exposure and driving patterns, 2 important contributors to crash risk. Methods: Data came from a study conducted at the University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute as part of the Integrated Vehicle-Based Safety System (IVBSS) program. A total of 108 randomly sampled drivers took part, with the sample stratified by age and sex. The age groups examined were 20 to 30 (younger), 40 to 50 (middle-aged), and 60 to 70 years old (older). Sixteen late-model Honda Accords were used as research vehicles and were driven by participants as their personal vehicles over the study period. Roughly the first 2 weeks of vehicle use comprised the baseline driving period, during which the IVBSS technologies were turned off (i.e., no warnings were presented to the drivers) but all onboard data were collected. For this article, only data from the baseline period were analyzed to limit any confounding effects that the safety technology may have had on driving behavior. Results: Results indicated that when looking at age independent of sex, older drivers (age 60–70) took fewer trips, drove fewer minutes, were less likely to drive at night, and had fewer high decelerations and speeding events than the youngest age group (20–30). They were also less likely to drive during peak morning traffic and on high-speed roads than their middle-age counterparts (40–50). Across all age groups, there were few differences by sex, with the exception that females drove fewer miles and fewer minutes and had fewer high decelerations than males. When both age and sex were taken into account, it was often the group of females age 60–70 that appeared to account for many of the age and sex differences found in driving exposure and patterns. Conclusions: Future research in this area would benefit from larger scale and longitudinal study designs so that changes in driving exposure and patterns over time among large samples of drivers could be examined.

Design and implementation of a parent guide for coaching teen drivers

INTRODUCTION Teens beginning to drive independently are at significant increased risk of motor-vehicle crashes relative to their other life stages. There is, however, little guidance for parents as to how best to supervise learning to drive. METHOD This study sought to undertake an informed approach to development and implementation of a Parent Guide. We included a multi-stage development process, using theory, findings from a Delphi-study of young driver traffic-safety experts, and parent focus groups. This process informed the development of a Guide that was then evaluated for feasibility and acceptability, comparing a group that received the Guide with a control group of parent and teen dyads. Both members of the dyads were surveyed at baseline, again at the approximate time teens would be licensed to drive independently (post-test), and again three months later. RESULTS We found no difference in the proportion of teens who became licensed between those given the new Guide and control teens (who received the state-developed booklet); that is the Guide did not appear to promote or delay licensure. Teens in the Guide group reported that their parents were more likely to use the provided resource compared with control teens. Responses indicated that the Parent Guide was favorably viewed, that it was easy to use, and that the logging of hours was a useful inclusion. Parents noted that the Guide helped them manage their stress, provided strategies to keep calm, and helped with planning practice. In contrast, control parents noted that their booklet helped explain rules. Among licensed teens there was no significant difference in self-reported risky driving at the three-month follow-up. We discuss the challenges in providing motivation for parents to move beyond a set number of practice hours to provide diversity of driving practice.

328 Translating to primary care physicians an effective safety program for parents of young drivers

Background Crashes among US novice young drivers remain too high. Addressing this problem, one effective program for parents is Checkpoints, which raises parents’ awareness of risks to their young drivers and offers ways to reduce those risks. But its most effective approach was in driver education classrooms and not widely available. A federally-funded study adapted Checkpoints to a website that could be promoted in several ways. This study promoted the Checkpoints website in brief interventions by Primary Care Practitioners (PCPs), and examined dissemination to/implementation by parents. Methods The website, youngdriverparenting.org (with an interactive parent-teen driving agreement, PTDA), and brief intervention protocol were developed in collaboration with leadership of Paediatric Research in Office Settings at the American Academy of Paediatrics. PCPs delivered interventions and materials to parents, referred them to the website, and completed follow-up surveys. Google Analytics was used to assess parents’ website use. Results Focus groups of parents/teens determined the website adaptation successful. Most of the 133 PCPs from 16 states reported delivering interventions with fidelity, and thought the program important and feasible. Brief interventions/website referrals, averaging 4.4 minutes, were delivered to 3,465 (87%) of 3,990 eligible parents over an 18-week average in 2012–2013. Website visits (1,453) were made by 42% of parents exposed to the intervention, who spent on average 3.53 minutes viewing an average of 4.2 pages. The PTDA was viewed by 24%, and 10% registered for an interactive PTDA. Conclusions Translation of an evidence-based parent program to a PCP-promoted website was demonstrated. Delivering the brief intervention/website referral was feasible and acceptable to PCPs. This program costs little (its website, training and promotional materials are available) and could be one component of a comprehensive approach to reducing young driver crashes.

Comparing paid versus earned media promotional strategies to broadly disseminate an effective teen driving intervention to Michigan parents via the web

Background Effective injury prevention programmes for teen drivers that can be broadly disseminated are needed. In this study, a university and a state department of community health partnered to translate an evidence-based, parent-oriented teen driving intervention to a website for state-wide dissemination. Aims/Objectives/Purpose Compare the effectiveness of website promotion efforts via paid or earned media. Methods Three, 4-month sequential phases of an incremental promotional strategy were evaluated using data from Google Analytics: Phase-1) links placed on partner websites only; Phase-2) active promotion by partners and earned media added; Phase-3) paid media added. Results/Outcome Each phase increased Website visits (2044; 3921; 9313), including a 137.5% increase due to paid media in Phase-3 (

A Randomized Controlled Trial of an Emergency Department–Based Interactive Computer Program to Prevent Alcohol Misuse Among Injured Adolescents

10 000 Facebook, plus

Longitudinal examination of underage drinking and subsequent drinking and risky driving.

20 000 various websites). Facebook was the leading source of Phase-3 traffic (2515 visits), but yielded average visits of only 15 s and 89.5% of visitors bounced (exited homepage without viewing other pages). In comparison, website visits increased 149.4% during a 2-week period in Phase-2 following a press release (379 visits), with average visits of 1 : 49 min and a bounce rate of 44.8%. Significance/Contribution to the Field Results demonstrated the potential of and revealed trade-offs inherent to paid and earned media for promoting a web-based injury prevention programme. Paid media had high costs and brought high traffic volume, but website use by visitors was limited. Earned media was free, increased website traffic less than paid media, but visitors used the website more. The success of earned media is encouraging for programmes that have limited financial resources.