Jens Alfredson

Applied cognitive ergonomics design principles for fighter aircraft

The objective of the reported work was to study the use and applicability of applied cognitive ergonomics design principles for fighter aircraft, with examples from the modern Swedish swing-role aircraft Gripen. Methods used were a literature review of relevant design principles together with an analysis of their applicability to the fighter aircraft domain as well as interviews of developers and scrutinized system documentation of ongoing fighter aircraft development at Saab. As a result of those activities, we can here present a brief description of cognitive ergonomics design principles applied in the Gripen fighter aircraft, and the development process for human-machine interaction for fighter aircraft. Finally, considerations for the design process for fighter aircraft are discussed in the context of that description.

Improvement of tactical situation awareness with colour-coded horizontal-situation displays in combat aircraft

In the multi-role combat aircraft Gripen, the monochrome head-down displays in the cockpit are to be upgraded in colour. In the present study, the effects of colour-coded displays on visual search and situation awareness (SA) were studied in a real-time simulation of an air-to-air mission with test pilots as subjects. Gripens monochrome colour scheme was compared to two chromatic (dichrome, polychrome) colour schemes. A 3×2×2 factorial within subjects design was used; the three colour schemes each with two different background conditions (simple and complex) and two different symbol configurations. The pilot had two tasks during the simulation: (1) to track a manoeuvring aircraft within specified limits by using the head-up display (HUD), and (2) to detect the appearance of a priority target on the head-down horizontal-situation display (HSD). Deviations in flight path angle and reaction times for target detection were recorded. After the test runs, the pilot answered questions and ranked the colour schemes in different respects. The pilot also rated them for SA using a subjective rating technique on cognitive compatibility (CC-SART). The results show that colour is advantageous in comparison to the monochrome display: The ranks on situation awareness and preference ratings were higher for the chromatic schemes, and with the complex background, the reaction times were significantly lower for the polychrome colour code. In summary, the results indicate that colour can improve tactical SA in combat aircraft.

Simulator-based human-machine interaction design

Human-in-the-loop simulators have been used for some decades in the automotive area. Historically, the most prevalent motive for this, beside training purposes, has been to study human performance in various situations. We suggest another focus, to evaluate human-machine system performance for various car system solutions as a fundamental part of simulator-based design (SBD). Our technical background is human-machine interaction (HMI), which is only one area where SBD could be deployed. However, in combination with human-in-the-loop simulation, HMI should be the most relevant perspective. In order to facilitate this SBD approach, it is necessary to have simulators (software and hardware) that support this way to implement new car system solutions to work seamlessly together with the entire vehicle system. Unfortunately, there are few such simulators available on the market today. We will expand this theme in the article and also address important questions concerning fidelity and validity.

Elements of team effectiveness: A qualitative study with pilots

Fighter pilots performing air missions rely heavily on teamwork for successful outcomes. Designing systems that support such teamwork in highly dynamic missions is a challenging task, and to the best of our knowledge, current teamwork models are not specifically adapted for this domain. This paper presents a model of task performance for military fighter pilots based on the teamwork model “Big Five” proposed by Salas, Sims, and Burke [1]. The “Big Five” model consists of eight teamwork elements that are essential for successful team performance. In-depth interviews were performed with fighter pilots to explore and describe the teamwork elements for the fighter aircraft domain. The findings from these interviews are used to suggest where in the task cycle of mission performance each teamwork element comes in to play.

User Participation in the Design of Cockpit Interfaces

This paper investigates the nature of user participation in the process of designing fighter aircraft cockpits. The role of the users, i.e. pilots, in the design of cockpit interfaces is explored. We present the results of an on-line questionnaire with twelve designers of cockpit interfaces for fighter aircraft. The results show that the designers have highlighted the need for more opportunities to observe the pilots, and they wish to obtain more information and ideas from them. Moreover, a larger involvement from users as examiners and testers in the evaluation process was desirable. Access to users was considered unproblematic and the risk of misunderstandings was reported to be low. Moreover, the designers did not support the idea that users should design or take design decisions.

A Teamwork Model for Fighter Pilots

Fighter pilots depend on collaboration and teamwork to perform successful air missions. However, such collaboration is challenging due to limitations in communication and the amount of data that can be shared between aircraft. In order to design future support systems for fighter pilots, this paper aims at characterizing how pilots collaborate while performing real-world missions. Our starting point is the “Big Five” model for effective teamwork, put forth by Salas et al. [1]. Fighter pilots were interviewed about their teamwork, and how they prepare and perform missions in teams. The results from the interviews were used to describe how pilots collaborate in teams, and to suggest relationships between the teamwork elements of the “Big Five” model for fighter pilots performing missions. The results presented in this paper are intended to inform designers and developers of cockpit displays, data links and decision support systems for fighter aircraft.

Informing the Design of Fighter Aircraft Cockpits Using a Teamwork Perspective

We describe a research process where fighter pilots’ behaviors were investigated from a teamwork perspective and the findings conveyed to the designers of cockpit interfaces in order to improve the fighter aircraft system. The teamwork perspective was selected because fighter aircraft are complex systems that require an advanced and trained pilot, who also, in addition to managing the aircraft systems needs to be a team player, collaborating with team members during dynamic and fast-paced circumstances to achieve the mission goals. A generic theoretical model for effective teamwork was selected as a starting point and a survey was conducted in order to investigate how fighter pilots collaborate during missions. The teamwork model and the survey results were then presented at workshops with designers of cockpit interfaces participating. The focus on the workshops was pilot teamwork and several design ideas aiming at improving the system for collaboration were generated.

Engine Failure Induced Task Load Transient for Simulation Based Certification Aiding for Aircraft

This study is one of a series of studies, researching various aspects that all aim at enhanced simulation based certification aiding for aircraft. An experimental within-group design study was performed with 10 participants (5 male, and 5 female). The results showed a significant difference, F(2,16) = 5.11, p = 0.019, in mental workload between an engine failure condition and an normal condition for eye blink frequency. No effect of speed at the engine failure event on mental workload was found.

Data-Driven Pilot Behavior Modeling Applied to an Aircraft Offset Landing Task

This paper shows studies for the development of a mathematical model that adequately represents a pilot behavior in the specific task of offset landing, using data-driven modeling techniques. Flight test data was used for the identification procedure. Considerations on the pilot’s cognitive process and mathematical modeling possibilities were discussed to select the most appropriate inputs and outputs for the model. This data was used to identify the model using artificial neural network techniques. The models obtained were validated against the identification data and different data not used in the training process to evaluate the quality of the models. Conclusions include the difficulties of showing the generalization capabilities of those non-linear models and further studies.

Adaptive Interaction Criteria for Future Remotely Piloted Aircraft

There are technical trends and operational needs within the aviation domain towards adaptive behavior. This study focus on adaptive interaction criteria for future remotely piloted aircraft. Criteria that could be used to guide and evaluate design as well as to create a model for adaptive interaction used by autonomous functions and decision support. A scenario and guidelines from the literature, used as example criteria, was presented in a questionnaire to participants from academia/researchers, end users, and aircraft development engineers. Several guidelines had a wide acceptance among the participants, but there was also aspects missing for the application of supporting adaptive interaction for remotely piloted aircraft. The various groups of participants contributed by different aspects supports the idea of having various stakeholders contributing with complementary views. Aspects that the participants found missing includes, predictability, aviation domain specifics, risk analysis, complexity and how people perceive autonomy and attribute intentions.