Jens Gundgaard

Increased intake of fruit and vegetables: estimation of impact in terms of life expectancy and healthcare costs.

OBJECTIVES There is strong evidence that a high consumption of fruit and vegetables reduces the risk of developing many cancers. This study examined the economic consequences for the healthcare sector if people followed the recommendations and increased their intake of fruit and vegetables. DESIGN A life table was used to describe a base case population with respect to life expectancy, cancer incidence and healthcare costs. Relative risks of cancer for a high versus a low intake of fruit and vegetables were obtained from the literature and were used to simulate populations with a higher intake of fruit and vegetables. The empirical data consist of a 20% sample of the Danish population that was followed from 1993 to 1997. Civil registration numbers were used to link various computerised registers, in order to describe each individual in the sample in terms of morbidity, mortality and healthcare costs. RESULTS The average daily intake of fruit and vegetables was assumed to be approximately 250 g for the general Danish population. Simulated intakes of 400 g and 500 g increased the life expectancy by 0.8 and 1.3 years, respectively. In addition, it was estimated that 19% and 32% of the cancer incidence could be prevented. The aggregate healthcare costs remained stable, as the resources saved due to a lower cancer incidence were offset by healthcare costs imposed by the fact that healthy people live longer and require more healthcare. However, the variations across age groups and health sectors were substantial. DISCUSSION The study adopted a healthcare sector perspective. Only costs from hospitalisation and primary care were included in the calculations. The costs of changing peoples dietary habits, i.e. education, information and promotion as well as other costs that would be relevant from a societal perspective, have not been taken into account. Furthermore, the transition from one level of intake to another is not the focus of the analysis, although it might take decades to observe the full effect of the dietary changes. CONCLUSION Empirical evidence suggests that a considerable fraction of all cancer incidences can be prevented by a higher intake of fruit and vegetables. That may result in improved public health (gain in life years) at no additional cost to the healthcare sector.

The effect of health, socio-economic position, and mode of data collection on non-response in health interview surveys

Aims: To investigate the relationship between potential explanatory factors (socio-economic factors and health) and non-response in two general population health interview surveys (face-to-face and telephone), and to compare the effects of the two interview modes on non-response patterns. Methods: Data derives from The Danish Health Interview Survey 2000 (face-to-face interview) and The Funen County Health Survey 2000/2001 (telephone interview). Data on all invited individuals were obtained from administrative registers and linked to survey data at individual level. Multiple logistic regression analyses were used to examine associations between potential explanatory factors and non-response. Results: The overall response rate was higher in the face-to-face interview survey (74.5%) than in the telephone survey (69.2%). Refusal was the most common reason for non-response and the same factors were generally associated with non-response in both modes of interview. The non-response rate was high among persons with low socio-economic position. No significant associations between health and non-response were found. Conclusions: Health status does not play a systematic role for non-response rates in health interview surveys, but the non-response rate is higher in lower socio-economic groups. Analyses of non-response should be performed to understand the implications of survey findings.

Income-related inequality in utilization of health services in Denmark: evidence from Funen County.

Aims: To examine income-related inequity in utilization of healthcare services in Denmark. Methods: A health survey of 2,915 respondents in Funen County interviewed in 2000 and 2001 on health status and socioeconomic and sociodemographic characteristics was merged with various computerized registers including inpatient stays, ambulatory visits, contacts in the primary healthcare sector, and prescription medicine. The index of horizontal inequity was used to estimate the degree of horizontal inequity in utilization of healthcare services across income groups, using the indirect method of standardization to control for age, gender, and self-assessed health as a proxy for need. The standardization method rests on the assumption of equal response behaviour across income groups. Results: The least advantaged with respect to income consume a bigger share of the health services than the most advantaged with the exception of dental treatments where the opposite is true. After standardization for age, gender, and health status there is no significant inequity in use of all healthcare services. However, when it comes to specific healthcare services the least advantaged have a significantly lower share of the medicine consumption and dental treatments than expected. Conclusion: The index of horizontal inequity suggests that the Danish healthcare system is in general equitable. In sectors with a high degree of co-payment some horizontal inequity disfavouring the lower income groups appears to be present.

Prediction of costs, effectiveness, and disease control of a population-based program using home sampling for diagnosis of urogenital Chlamydia trachomatis Infections.

Objective: To estimate the incremental effects and costs of a home sampling screening approach for Chlamydia trachomatis over the current in-office screening practice in Denmark. Goals: To assess the effect of a new screening strategy. Study Design: A dynamic Monte Carlo model estimated prevalence and incidence over 10 years for a home sampling screening program and the current in-office screening. Subsequently, the incremental number of major outcomes averted (MOA) and the related direct and indirect costs were estimated. Results: Infection prevalence after 10 years was 1.0% with a home sampling program and 4.2% with the current in-office screening practice. The total costs per MOA reached

Cost-effectiveness of nutritional counseling for obese patients and patients at risk of ischemic heart disease

3186 during the first year of the home sampling strategy, but in year 4, the accumulated indirect costs offset the direct costs, and the program henceforth saved society costs. Conclusions: Home sampling should be considered a relevant alternative to the current practice of in-office screening.

Use of six main drug therapeutic groups across educational groups: self-reported survey and prescription records

OBJECTIVES Obesity and dyslipidemia are risk factors for ischemic heart disease, and prevention and treatment in primary care can reduce these risks. The objective of this cost-effectiveness analysis was to compare the costs and effects (in terms of life years gained) of providing nutritional counseling by a general practitioner (GP) or a dietician. METHODS A total of 60 GPs, who accepted to participate, were randomized either to give nutritional counseling or to refer patients to a dietician for counseling. The life years gained was estimated using a Cox regression model. Costs were estimated on the basis of registered use of time (dieticians) or agreed salaries (GPs). RESULTS The effect of nutritional counseling comparing GPs and dieticians is greatest when counseling is performed by a GP--0.0919 years versus 0.0274 years. These effects appear to be moderate, but they are significant. It is also proven that the GP group was the most cost-effective-the cost of gaining 1 extra life year was estimated to be 8213 DKK compared with the dietician group, for which the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio was estimated to be 59,987 DKK. CONCLUSIONS The effects were moderate, but other studies of other patient groups and interventions report effects within the same magnitude. The GP group was the most cost-effective, but it must be concluded that both counseling strategies were relatively cost-effective. Even though the cost of gaining an extra life year was estimated to be 59,987 DKK in the dietician group, this might be an acceptable price.

Decomposition of sources of income-related health inequality applied on SF-36 summary scores: a Danish health survey

Objectives:  To assess whether the use of six main therapeutic groups was congruent with the occurrence of related diseases across educational groups.

A decomposition of income-related health inequality applied to EQ-5D.

BackgroundIf the SF-36 summary scores are used as health status measures for the purpose of measuring health inequality it is relevant to be informed about the sources of the inequality in order to be able to target the specific aspects of health with the largest impact.MethodsData were from a Danish health survey on health status, health behaviour and socio-economic background. Decompositions of concentration indices were carried out to examine the sources of income-related inequality in physical and mental health, using the physical and mental health summary scores from SF-36.ResultsThe analyses show how the different subscales from SF-36 and various explanatory variables contribute to overall inequality in physical and mental health. The decompositions contribute with information about the importance of the different aspects of health and off-setting effects that would otherwise be missed in the aggregate summary scores. However, the complicated scoring mechanism of the summary scores with negative coefficients makes it difficult to interpret the contributions and to draw policy implications.ConclusionDecomposition techniques provide insights to how subscales contribute to income-related inequality when SF-36 summary scores are used.

The effect of non-response on estimates of health care utilisation: linking health surveys and registers

Income-related inequality in health and its relationship to sociodemographic characteristics have received considerable attention in the health economic literature. Recently a method was suggested for decomposing income-related health inequality to contributions from individual characteristics via additive dimensions, and this was applied to a Finnish case based on 15D health scores, where health is considered to be a sum of 15 individual health dimensions. The present study adds to this literature in several ways. First, we apply the decomposition approach to a Danish case which can be benchmarked to the Finnish. Second, we show how to apply the method to EQ-5D scores, which deviate from 15D scores by expressing health as individual depreciations of an equal endowment of perfect health. Third, we add life-style factors to the determinants of income-related health inequality. The empirical part of the study reveals discrepancies which can be attributed to differences between Finland and Denmark and to differences between the construction of 15D and EQ-5D scores. Finally, evidence of impact of life-style factors on income-related health inequality is found.