Jere D. Gallagher

Reaction Time and Anticipation Time: Effects of Development

Abstract The developmental nature of reaction time (RT) and anticipation timing (AT) performance, as well as the relationship between them, was investigated using 15 male and 15 female subjects at each of five age levels—7, 9, 11, 13, and 20 yrs. Each subject was given 40 trials for both RT and AT performance with task order counterbalanced. Results indicated that as age increased RT decreased, with males having more rapid RT than females. The two younger age groups differed from the three older groups on AT performance. RT was significantly correlated with AT (|CE| measure) for the 7, 9, and 11 yr old males but not in any other age by gender condition. Apparently neither young males nor young females have a good motor plan in memory to control AT performance. However, the more rapid RT (and thus better response initiation) of the males allows better AT performance at the younger ages. Beginning about 10–11 yrs of age, better motor plans are developed in childrens memory system, leading to less reliance ...

Effects of Varying Post-Kr Intervals Upon Children’s Motor Performance

An experiment using post-KR interval methodology was designed to investigate the developmental relationship of age and processing speed regarding performance on a ballistic linear slide task. The hypothesis drawn from the developmental literature was that, given a short time for processing information, younger children should perform less efficiently than older children and adults. However, an increase in processing time should result in performances being more similar. Subjects in the experiment were 90 female children equally divided among 7 and 11-yr-olds and adults. Within age, subjects were randomly assigned to one of three post-KR interval groups: 3, 6, and 12 sec. Conclusions support the processing deficits hypotheses of Chi (1976): given enough time to process KR, the childrens performance was not significantly different from the performance of adults.

Rehearsal Strategy Effects on Developmental Differences for Recall of a Movement Series.

Abstract When learning verbal information, an important aspect of practice is the method of rehearsal, which has been demonstrated to vary developmentally. A young child practices on an instance-by-instance basis (passive rehearsal), whereas older children and adults practice several items together (active rehearsal). This study investigated the effects of passive and active rehearsal on developmental processing differences for movement reproduction. Three methods of rehearsal were used at ages 5, 7, 11, and 19 years. A child-like strategy forced the subjects to practice location cues for each of eight movements, which were presented one at a time. The mature-strategy group practiced each new position presented with two previously presented positions. A subject-determined strategy group which allowed subjects to choose their own methods of rehearsal was included as a control. Significant ANOVAs supported the hypothesis that quality of rehearsal (active over passive) is important. For the 5- and 7-year-old...

The Relative Age Effect among Female Brazilian Youth Volleyball Players.

In sports, the relative age effect (RAE) refers to performance disadvantages of children born late in the competition year compared to those with birthdays soon after the cutoff date. This effect is derived from age grouping, a strategy commonly used in youth sport programs. The purpose of age grouping is to decrease possible cognitive, physical, and emotional differences among sport participants. In spite of the efforts to equate playing conditions, youth athletes born early in the competitive age group are selected to be part of squads more often than late-born athletes, even within the same 1-year category. Most RAE studies have been conducted on professional male athletes, including hockey (Boucher & Mutimer, 1994), soccer (Helsen, Starkes, & Winckel, 1998), baseball (Grondin & Koren, 2000), and tennis (Edwards, 1994). Skewed distributions favoring athletes born early in the selection year were also found in youth sports. Several studies investigating soccer (Helsen et al., 1998; Helsen, Winckel, & Williams, 2005; Glamser & Vincent, 2004), hockey (Barnsley & Thompson, 1988), and basketball (Delorme & Raspaud, 2008) demonstrated a strong RAE among young male athletes. Not as many studies focused on female athletes. In fact, to our knowledge no studies have been conducted on adult female athletes and only a few on young female athletes. Among these studies, only one significant RAE was found (Delorme & Raspaud, 2008), in which youth basketball players ranging from 7 to 17 years of age participated. Although significant due to its large sample size (n = 107,101), differences in actual proportions of players born in different quarters of the year were small (Q1 = 26.1%, Q2 = 27.4%, Q3 = 24.6%, Q4 = 21.9%). In fact, the difference between the proportion of players born in the first and last 6 months of the year is probably not meaningful in applied settings. Nevertheless, it is the only indication in the literature of RAE among young female players. Helsen et al. (2005) did not find a significant RAE among female soccer players under the age of 18 years who were selected from national teams of 10 European countries. Although not statistically significant, a larger percentage of players were born early in the competition year. Approximately 31% were born in the first quarter compared to 17% in the last quarter, and 67% were born in the first 6 months of the competitive year. While 44 young female athletes took part in the experiment, it is possible a slightly larger sample size would have produced significant results. Vincent and Glamser (2006) also demonstrated a lack of an RAE for female athletes. Female soccer players, ages 17 and 18 years, participating in the youth U.S. Olympic program participated in this study. Their physical development and social expectations were strongly credited for the results. The authors stated that postpubescent girls generally have shorter legs and wider hips, a larger body mass index, and a more endomorphic body type; all of which are considered to be highly disadvantageous to perThe Relative Age Effect Among Female Brazilian Youth Volleyball Players

Hand rim wheelchair propulsion training using biomechanical real-time visual feedback based on motor learning theory principles.

Abstract Background/Objective: As considerable progress has been made in laboratory-based assessment of manual wheelchair propulsion biomechanics, the necessity to translate this knowledge into new clinical tools and treatment programs becomes imperative. The objective of this study was to describe the development of a manual wheelchair propulsion training program aimed to promote the development of an efficient propulsion technique among long-term manual wheelchair users. Methods: Motor learning theory principles were applied to the design of biomechanical feedback-based learning software, which allows for random discontinuous real-time visual presentation of key spatiotemporal and kinetic parameters. This software was used to train a long-term wheelchair user on a dynamometer during 3 low-intensity wheelchair propulsion training sessions over a 3-week period. Biomechanical measures were recorded with a SmartWheel during over ground propulsion on a 50-m level tile surface at baseline and 3 months after baseline. Results: Training software was refined and administered to a participant who was able to improve his propulsion technique by increasing contact angle while simultaneously reducing stroke cadence, mean resultant force, peak and mean moment out of plane, and peak rate of rise of force applied to the pushrim after training. Conclusions: The proposed propulsion training protocol may lead to favorable changes in manual wheelchair propulsion technique. These changes could limit or prevent upper limb injuries among manual wheelchair users. In addition, many of the motor learning theory—based techniques examined in this study could be applied to training individuals in various stages of rehabilitation to optimize propulsion early on.

Developmental Effects of Grouping and Recoding on Learning a Movement Series

Organization of information is a strategy used in verbal learning to improve task performance. Developmental trends exist for the use of an organization strategy; young children generally fail to use organizational cues when responding. With age, children use inherent organization followed by an increased ability to restructure input. This study focused on the developmental ability to use a cognitive strategy to recall a series of eight movements. Three conditions were used: experimenter presented organization (movements presented in order from short to long), training group (movements presented randomly with training to organize), and subjective organization (movements presented randomly). The ages selected were 5, 7, 11, and 19 years, since these ages tend to represent major changes in strategy usage. Learning trials were presented specifically for each group, while for transfer trials all subjects were given movements in an unorganized fashion. Results indicated that the younger children (5- and 7- yea...

The reliability of classification decisions for the Furtado-Gallagher Computerized Observational Movement Pattern Assessment System--FG-COMPASS.

Mastery of fundamental movement skills (FMS) is an important factor in preventing weight gain and increasing physical activity. To master FMS, performance evaluation is necessary. In this study, we investigated the reliability of a new observational assessment tool. In Phase I, 110 video clips of children performing five locomotor, and six manipulative FMSs were developed. In Phase II, rating scales were developed, and their efficacy was evaluated by comparing judgments of 30 undergraduate students to a standard. The mean weighted kappa (.71) was considered good (range .51–.85). Of the 11 rating scales, 6 were modified, and 5 remained unchanged. This study sets the foundation for the development of a new observational scale to assess fundamental movement skills.

Expert-Rater Agreement and Inter-/Intrarater Reliability for the Furtado–Gallagher Computerized Observational Movement Pattern Assessment System

Fundamental movement skills (FMS) play a crucial role in a child’s motor skill development, as their mastery is related to the acquisition and mastery of specialized sport skills and to a child’s general health through the prevention of weight gain and increased level of physical activity. Thus, the accurate and reliable measurement of FMS is of related importance. This article presents the results of two studies intended to assess expert-rater agreement and inter-/intrarater scoring reliability in the administration of a new observational FMS instrument, the Furtado–Gallagher Computerized Observational Movement Pattern Assessment System (FG-COMPASS). In Study 1, we found that four of the six scales that underwent modifications in a previous study yielded acceptable expert agreement, permitting their retention in the revised test, while the two remaining scales measuring side sliding and leaping yielded insufficient expert agreement, leading to their removal from the test. In Study 2, weighted kappa values reflected very good interrater agreement among three raters across two test administrations for the Locomotor and Manipulative subtests and the Total score (all skills combined). Future studies should (a) collect validity and reliability evidence for two additional skills planned for inclusion in the Locomotor subtest, (b) assess the impact of varying the number of trials given when assessing motor skill performances in life settings, and (c) test the feasibility of the web-based training tool and mobile version of the instrument.

Step-count guidelines referenced on 60-minutes of moderate/vigorous physical activity

The purpose of this study was to establish step-count guidelines for sixth-grade students and assess the ability of step-counts to discriminate between students achieving and not achieving 60-minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity daily. 201 sixth-grade students completed the study. They wore a pedometer and an accelerometer at the waist level for one full day. ROC curves were used to establish step-count guidelines and determine the diagnostic accuracy of step-counts. Sixth grade students need 12,118 steps/day to reach adequate daily levels of physical activity. The AUC indicated good diagnostic accuracy of step-counts. Suggested step-count guidelines can be a useful tool for identifying children who need to increase their daily levels of physical activity. The step-count cutoff proposed in this study is adequate for discriminating between sixth grade students reaching and not reaching recommended levels of physical activity.