Jeremy W. Mattson

Transportation, Distance, and Health Care Utilization for Older Adults in Rural and Small Urban Areas

Transportation is vital for access to health care, especially in rural areas, where travel distances are great and access to alternative modes such as transit is less prevalent. This study estimated the impacts of transportation and travel distance on the utilization of health care services for older adults in rural and small urban areas. With data collected from a survey, a model was developed on the basis of the Health Behavior Model, which considered transportation and distance as factors that could enable or impede health care utilization. A random sample of individuals age 60 years and older living in the rural Upper Great Plains states of Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming were surveyed by mail. Responses were received from 543 individuals (20% response rate). Probit models were used to estimate trip frequency and the likelihood that an individual would miss or would delay a health care trip. Distance and transportation variables were not found to influence significantly the total number of routine or chronic care trips made overall, while emergency care visits were affected by the availability of transportation options. Additional results showed that those who could not drive made more trips if someone in the household could drive and that distance and access to transportation affected the difficulty reported in making trips and the likelihood of missing or delaying a trip. The greatest problems for people using public transportation for health care trips were inconvenient schedules, the need to match transit and medical schedules, and infrequent service.

Aging and Mobility in Rural and Small Urban Areas A Survey of North Dakota

To investigate issues of aging and mobility in rural and small urban areas, this study analyzes the results from a survey AARP conducted of its North Dakota members. Specific objectives are to estimate the impact of age and other demographic and geographic characteristics on various measures of mobility, including ability to drive, use of public transportation, trip frequency for both discretionary and nondiscretionary travel, unmet travel demand, barriers to using public transportation, and satisfaction with available transportation options. Although most surveyed still drive, results show decreased mobility with increases in age and for people with disabilities due to decreases in driving and an increased likelihood of lack of transportation limiting the number of trips taken. People with disabilities were also significantly more likely to experience problems with public transportation. Women were found to be less likely to drive and more likely to use public transportation.

An Assessment of Demand for Rural Intercity Transportation Services in a Changing Environment

With higher fuel costs and changing economic conditions, travel behavior and the level and allocation of resources in highways, rail, air, and transit service in rural areas may be changing. The objective of this study is to determine the attitude of would-be passengers in their choice of mode and the factors determining their choice in rural and small urban areas. A stated preference survey was developed and administered to residents of North Dakota and northwest and west central Minnesota. The survey asked respondents to identify their mode of choice in different hypothetical situations in which five modes were available—automobile, air, bus, train, and van—under differing mode and trip characteristics. A multinomial logit model was used to estimate the likelihood that an individual would choose a given mode on the basis of the characteristics of the mode, the characteristics of the individual, and the characteristics of the trip. Results show that travelers, especially those of lower income, respond to higher gasoline prices by choosing alternative modes in greater numbers, suggesting rural intercity bus, van, and rail ridership would increase if gasoline prices rose.

Marginal Cost Pricing and Subsidy of Small Urban Transit

This study analyzes economies of scale and density as a rationale for subsidizing transit agencies in small urban areas. A long-run cost model is estimated with data from 2006 to 2009 for 168 transit agencies that directly operated fixed-route bus service in small urban areas. With vehicle revenue miles used as transit output, results show that small urban transit agencies experience economies of scale and density. A full-cost model is estimated; the model includes the addition of external costs and benefits. External benefits result from the reduced waiting times that follow an increase in service frequency. Results are used to estimate the optimal fare, which is equal to marginal social cost of service. The needed subsidy is calculated as the difference between the revenue generated by the optimal fare and that needed to maintain efficient levels of production. The rationale for subsidies is an important issue, as many agencies have experienced recent reductions in operational funding.

Estimating Ridership of Rural Demand–Response Transit Services for the General Public

The general objective of this study was to develop a model for estimating ridership for rural demand–response transit services for the general public. A lack of data for demand–response service characteristics and geographic coverage has limited the estimation of such models. This study developed and estimated two models. The first was estimated with data from the 2013 rural National Transit Database, and the second was estimated with more detailed service data collected from surveys of transit agencies. Results showed that in addition to total population, demographic characteristics were important. Ridership was found to increase significantly when the percentage of the population composed of older adults or people without access to a vehicle increased. Both models showed a negative effect of fares on ridership. The second model analyzed the effects of service span and reservation requirements on ridership. Results showed that providing more days of service had an expected positive effect on ridership; allowing users to reserve rides on shorter notice also had a significant positive effect. Compared with previous research, the inclusion of a greater number of variables and more specific service information improved the performance of the models.

Method for Estimating Statewide Transit Needs and Investment Priorities for Rural and Small Urban Areas

This study demonstrated a method for identifying statewide transit needs and gaps, prioritizing investment needs for statewide transit planning, collecting better data for the demand-response transit level of service, estimating costs of needed improvements, and projecting service needs based on projected population growth. The method was applied to the state of North Dakota and is transferable to any state, especially those with a large number of rural demand-response transit agencies that are not located within metropolitan planning areas. Currently, data in the National Transit Database are insufficient for analyzing the level of service for rural transit agencies because the database lacks information on geographic service area and span of service. A survey conducted for this study filled this data need by collecting detailed information regarding each agency’s service area and the number of days and hours of service being provided. These data combined with population and demographic data are useful for identifying gaps in transit service and prioritizing needed service improvements. The study also calculated per capita trips, vehicle miles, and vehicle hours provided in regions across the state. These performance measures were compared with benchmark values to identify areas in which the transit system may not be meeting the needs of the service area population, with the understanding that needs are not identical in all areas. The study estimated necessary increases in service and funding to meet target levels in different scenarios. Population projections were also considered for estimating needed increases in service and funding.

Developing a Method for Assessing National Demand-Response Transit Level of Service

Demand-response transit service is a major source of mobility for older adults and people with disabilities in both urban and rural areas in United States. Federal Transit Administration (FTA) grant programs under sections 5307, 5310, and 5311 all have components designed to increase the availability of paratransit or demand-response transit service. However, there is little information in the National Transit Database (NTD) or elsewhere about the extent of demand-response transit service coverage across the country. The lack of data makes it a challenge to identify gaps in service and unmet needs. The primary objective of this study was to fill the data gaps to the available NTD database to effectively determine the demand-response transit level of service. This study also developed a priority ranking procedure to identify where the greatest needs for service improvements exist in a state.

Growing U.S. Trade Deficit in Consumer-Oriented Agricultural Products

We investigate the factors behind the growing U.S. trade deficit in consumer-oriented agricultural products by using reliable panel data and an empirical trade model derived from international trade theory. The results indicate that per capita income in the United States appears to be the most important determinant for the growing U.S. trade deficit of consumer-oriented agricultural products. An increase in per capita income and trade liberalization in foreign countries would improve the U.S. trade balance. U.S. foreign direct investment abroad in food manufactures and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) are found to have negative effects on the U.S. trade balance.

Exploring Transit’s Contribution to Livability in Rural Communities: Case Studies of the North Dakota Cities of Valley City and Dickinson

This paper investigates the nexus of transit and rural livability as demonstrated by case studies in the North Dakota communities of Valley City and Dickinson. While there are many factors that influence the livability of a rural community, transit is believed to be an important contributor. For each of the two North Dakota communities considered, public/resident surveys, local transit rider surveys, and stakeholder interviews were conducted to understand differing opinions on livability and how transit contributes to livability. In both Valley City and Dickinson, surveys of residents showed that they believe affordable housing, low crime, quality healthcare, overall cost of living, quality public schools, and available jobs are the most important factors contributing to the livability of a small community. While transit was not among the top factors, survey respondents expressed considerable support for providing transit services and funding transit through various sources. Residents in both cities expressed the opinion that transit should be provided in their community as a transportation option for seniors, people with disabilities, those who choose not to drive, and those who cannot afford to drive. Transit riders in both cities indicated that transit is important to their quality of life, and stakeholders from both communities expressed the sentiment that transit is a critical lifeline for people who are elderly and/or have a disability, individuals with no vehicle, and those who cannot drive.

Cost–Benefit Analysis of Rural and Small Urban Transit in the United States

The true value of transit systems in rural and small urban areas in the United States has been largely unmeasured, and there are often effects that go unidentified. Many studies have documented the benefits of urban transit systems with benefit–cost analysis. However, not many have looked into the benefits of transit in rural and small urban areas, where there is a great need for public transit, especially for transportation-disadvantaged individuals. This study focused on evaluating the qualitative and quantitative benefits of rural and small urban public transit systems and analyzed the benefit–cost ratio for rural and small urban transit areas for fixed-route and demand-response services in the United States. Data for rural and small urban transit systems from the national transit database (NTD) and rural NTD were used for calibrating the transit benefits and costs. Results were presented at a national level to show the effects of transit investments in rural and small urban areas nationally. Transit benefits in the United States for 2011 were found to be