Jeseong Park

A role for DNA polymerase θ in promoting replication through oxidative DNA lesion, thymine glycol, in human cells.

Background: Little is known of biological functions of DNA polymerase (pol) θ in human cells. Results: polθ promotes replication through the common oxidation product, thymine glycol, in human cells. Conclusion: polθ active site can accommodate the considerable distortion imposed by thymine glycol at the extension step. Significance: polθ may function in translesion synthesis opposite a variety of DNA lesions. The biological functions of human DNA polymerase (pol) θ, an A family polymerase, have remained poorly defined. Here we identify a role of polθ in translesion synthesis (TLS) in human cells. We show that TLS through the thymine glycol (TG) lesion, the most common oxidation product of thymine, occurs via two alternative pathways, in one of which, polymerases κ and ζ function together and mediate error-free TLS, whereas in the other, polθ functions in an error-prone manner. Human polθ is comprised of an N-terminal ATPase/helicase domain, a large central domain, and a C-terminal polymerase domain; however, we find that only the C-terminal polymerase domain is required for TLS opposite TG in human cells. In contrast to TLS mediated by polκ and polζ, in which polζ would elongate the chain from the TG:A base pair formed by polκ action, the ability of polθ alone to carry out the nucleotide insertion step, as well as the subsequent extension step that presents a considerable impediment due to displacement of the 5′ template base, suggests that the polθ active site can accommodate highly distorting DNA lesions.

CCK2 RECEPTOR EXPRESSION TRANSFORMS NON-TUMORIGENIC HUMAN NCM356 COLONIC EPITHELIAL CELLS INTO TUMOR FORMING CELLS

Expression of gastrin and cholecystokinin 2 (CCK2) receptor splice variants (CCK2R and CCK2i4svR) are upregulated in human colonic adenomas where they are thought to contribute to tumor growth and progression. To determine the effects of ectopic CCK2 receptor variant expression on colonic epithelial cell growth in vitro and in vivo, we employed the non‐tumorigenic colonic epithelial cell line, NCM356. Receptor expression was induced using a retroviral expression vector containing cDNAs for either CCK2i4svR or CCK2R. RT‐PCR and intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) imaging of RIE/CCK2R cells treated with conditioned media (CM) from NCM356 revealed that NCM356 cells express gastrin mRNA and secrete endogenous, biologically active peptide. NCM356 cells expressing either CCK2R or CCK2i4svR (71 and 81 fmol/mg, respectively) grew faster in vitro, and exhibited an increase in basal levels of phosphorylated ERK (pERK), compared with vector. CCK2 receptor selective antagonist, YM022, partially inhibited the growth of both receptor‐expressing NCM356 cells, but not the control cells. Inhibitors of mitogen activated protein kinase pathway (MEK/ERK) or protein kinase C (PKC) isozymes partially inhibited the elevated levels of basal pERK and in vitro growth of receptor‐expressing cells. Vector‐NCM356 cells did not form tumors in nude mice, whereas, either CCK2 receptor‐expressing cells formed large tumors. Autocrine activation CCK2 receptor variants are sufficient to increase in vitro growth and tumorigenicity of non‐transformed NCM356 colon epithelial cells through a pathway involving PKC and the MEK/ERK axis. These findings support the hypothesis that expression of gastrin and its receptors in human colonic adenomas contributes to tumor growth and progression.

Rev1 promotes replication through UV lesions in conjunction with DNA polymerases η, ι, and κ but not DNA polymerase ζ.

Translesion synthesis (TLS) DNA polymerases (Pols) promote replication through DNA lesions; however, little is known about the protein factors that affect their function in human cells. In yeast, Rev1 plays a noncatalytic role as an indispensable component of Polζ, and Polζ together with Rev1 mediates a highly mutagenic mode of TLS. However, how Rev1 functions in TLS and mutagenesis in human cells has remained unclear. Here we determined the role of Rev1 in TLS opposite UV lesions in human and mouse fibroblasts and showed that Rev1 is indispensable for TLS mediated by Polη, Polι, and Polκ but is not required for TLS by Polζ. In contrast to its role in mutagenic TLS in yeast, Rev1 promotes predominantly error-free TLS opposite UV lesions in humans. The identification of Rev1 as an indispensable scaffolding component for Polη, Polι, and Polκ, which function in TLS in highly specialized ways opposite a diverse array of DNA lesions and act in a predominantly error-free manner, implicates a crucial role for Rev1 in the maintenance of genome stability in humans.

Epidermal growth factor potentiates cholecystokinin/gastrin receptor-mediated Ca2+ release by activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases.

Small differences in amplitude, duration, and temporal patterns of change in the concentration of free intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) can profoundly affect cell physiology, altering programs of gene expression, cell proliferation, secretory activity, and cell survival. We report a novel mechanism for amplitude modulation of [Ca2+]i that involves mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). We show that epidermal growth factor (EGF) potentiates gastrin-(1–17) (G17)-stimulated Ca2+ release from intracellular Ca2+ stores through a MAPK-dependent pathway. G17 activation of the cholecystokinin/gastrin receptor (CCK2R), a G protein-coupled receptor, stimulates release of Ca2+ from inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate-sensitive Ca2+ stores. Pretreating rat intestinal epithelial cells expressing CCK2R with EGF increased the level of G17-stimulated Ca2+ release from intracellular stores. The stimulatory effect of EGF on CCK2R-mediated Ca2+ release requires activation of the MAPK kinase (MEK)1,2/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1,2 pathway. Inhibition of the MEK1,2/ERK1,2 pathway by either serum starvation or treatment with selective MEK1,2 inhibitors PD98059 and U0126 or expression of a dominant-negative mutant form of MEK1 decreased the amplitude of the G17-stimulated Ca2+ release response. Activation of the MEK1,2/ERK1,2 pathway either by pretreating cells with EGF or by expression of constitutively active K-ras (K-rasV12G) or MEK1 (MEK1*) increased the amplitude of G17-stimulated Ca2+ release. Although EGF, MEK1*, and K-rasV12G activated the MEK1,2/ERK1,2 pathway, they did not increase [Ca2+]i in the absence of G17. These data demonstrate that the activation state of the MEK1,2/ERK1,2 pathway can modulate the amplitude of the CCK2R-mediated Ca2+ release response and identify a novel mechanism for cross-talk between EGF receptor- and CCK2R-regulated signaling pathways.

Identification of two functional PCNA-binding domains in human DNA polymerase κ.

Previously, we have shown that human DNA polymerase (Pol) η has two functional PCNA‐binding motifs, PIP1 and PIP2, and that a C‐terminal deletion of Polη that lacks the ubiquitin‐binding UBZ domain and the PIP2 domain but retains the PIP1 domain promotes normal levels of translesion synthesis (TLS) opposite a cis‐syn TT dimer in human cells. Here, we identify two PIP domains in Polκ and show that TLS occurs normally in human fibroblast cells in which the pip1 or pip2 mutant Polκ is expressed, but mutational inactivation of both PIP domains renders Polκ nonfunctional in TLS opposite the thymine glycol lesion. Thus, the two PIP domains of Polκ function redundantly in TLS opposite this DNA lesion in human cells. However, and surprisingly, whereas mutational inactivation of the PIP1 domain completely inhibits the stimulation of DNA synthesis by Polκ in the presence of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), replication factor C, and replication protein A, mutations in PIP2 have no adverse effect on PCNA‐dependent DNA synthesis. This raises the possibility that activation of Polκ PIP2 as a PCNA‐binding domain occurs during TLS in human cells and that protein–protein interactions and post‐transcriptional modifications are involved in such activation.

Translesion synthesis DNA polymerases promote error-free replication through the minor-groove DNA adduct 3-deaza-3-methyladenine

N3-Methyladenine (3-MeA) is formed in DNA by reaction with S-adenosylmethionine, the reactive methyl donor, and by reaction with alkylating agents. 3-MeA protrudes into the DNA minor groove and strongly blocks synthesis by replicative DNA polymerases (Pols). However, the mechanisms for replicating through this lesion in human cells remain unidentified. Here we analyzed the roles of translesion synthesis (TLS) Pols in the replication of 3-MeA-damaged DNA in human cells. Because 3-MeA has a short half-life in vitro, we used the stable 3-deaza analog, 3-deaza-3-methyladenine (3-dMeA), which blocks the DNA minor groove similarly to 3-MeA. We found that replication through the 3-dMeA adduct is mediated via three different pathways, dependent upon Polι/Polκ, Polθ, and Polζ. As inferred from biochemical studies, in the Polι/Polκ pathway, Polι inserts a nucleotide (nt) opposite 3-dMeA and Polκ extends synthesis from the inserted nt. In the Polθ pathway, Polθ carries out both the insertion and extension steps of TLS opposite 3-dMeA, and in the Polζ pathway, Polζ extends synthesis following nt insertion by an as yet unidentified Pol. Steady-state kinetic analyses indicated that Polι and Polθ insert the correct nt T opposite 3-dMeA with a much reduced catalytic efficiency and that both Pols exhibit a high propensity for inserting a wrong nt opposite this adduct. However, despite their low fidelity of synthesis opposite 3-dMeA, TLS opposite this lesion replicates DNA in a highly error-free manner in human cells. We discuss the implications of these observations for TLS mechanisms in human cells.

Genetic control of predominantly error-free replication through an acrolein-derived minor-groove DNA adduct

Acrolein, an α,β-unsaturated aldehyde, is generated in vivo as the end product of lipid peroxidation and from metabolic oxidation of polyamines, and it is a ubiquitous environmental pollutant. The reaction of acrolein with the N2 of guanine in DNA leads to the formation of γ-hydroxy-1-N2-propano-2′ deoxyguanosine (γ-HOPdG), which can exist in DNA in a ring-closed or a ring-opened form. Here, we identified the translesion synthesis (TLS) DNA polymerases (Pols) that conduct replication through the permanently ring-opened reduced form of γ-HOPdG ((r) γ-HOPdG) and show that replication through this adduct is mediated via Rev1/Polη-, Polι/Polκ-, and Polθ-dependent pathways, respectively. Based on biochemical and structural studies, we propose a role for Rev1 and Polι in inserting a nucleotide (nt) opposite the adduct and for Pols η and κ in extending synthesis from the inserted nt in the respective TLS pathway. Based on genetic analyses and biochemical studies with Polθ, we infer a role for Polθ at both the nt insertion and extension steps of TLS. Whereas purified Rev1 and Polθ primarily incorporate a C opposite (r) γ-HOPdG, Polι incorporates a C or a T opposite the adduct; nevertheless, TLS mediated by the Polι-dependent pathway as well as by other pathways occurs in a predominantly error-free manner in human cells. We discuss the implications of these observations for the mechanisms that could affect the efficiency and fidelity of TLS Pols.