Jessica Jensen

The United States' Experience with the Incident Command System: What We Think We Know and What We Need to Know More About

In the wake of the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the United States, organizations involved in emergency management at the local, state and federal level were mandated to utilize the Incident Command System (ICS) to structure on‐scene response efforts. The system is currently relied upon as an organizing mechanism for response in the United States, and its widespread use outside of the United States is being advocated. Yet, there is little evidence that the system is consistently used as designed or a salve to common response problems. This paper reviews the evolution of ICS in practice and the available research on its use and effectiveness. The review makes clear that more research on the system is urgently needed.

Mitigating flood exposure

Introduction. In 2011, following heavy winter snowfall, two cities bordering two rivers in North Dakota, USA faced major flood threats. Flooding was foreseeable and predictable although the extent of risk was uncertain. One community, Fargo, situated in a shallow river basin, successfully mitigated and prevented flooding. For the other community, Minot, located in a deep river valley, prevention was not possible and downtown businesses and one-quarter of the homes were inundated, in the city’s worst flood on record. We aimed at contrasting the respective hazards, vulnerabilities, stressors, psychological risk factors, psychosocial consequences, and disaster risk reduction strategies under conditions where flood prevention was, and was not, possible. Methods. We applied the “trauma signature analysis” (TSIG) approach to compare the hazard profiles, identify salient disaster stressors, document the key components of disaster risk reduction response, and examine indicators of community resilience. Results. Two demographically-comparable communities, Fargo and Minot, faced challenging river flood threats and exhibited effective coordination across community sectors. We examined the implementation of disaster risk reduction strategies in situations where coordinated citizen action was able to prevent disaster impact (hazard avoidance) compared to the more common scenario when unpreventable disaster strikes, causing destruction, harm, and distress. Across a range of indicators, it is clear that successful mitigation diminishes both physical and psychological impact, thereby reducing the trauma signature of the event. Conclusion. In contrast to experience of historic flooding in Minot, the city of Fargo succeeded in reducing the trauma signature by way of reducing risk through mitigation.

The Current NIMS Implementation Behavior of United States Counties

This study described and explained the current implementation behavior of counties in the United States with respect to the National Incident Management System (NIMS). Data were collected in two phases: 1) an internet survey was sent to a national random sample of county emergency managers and 2) a mail survey was sent to emergency managers in the sample that had not completed the internet survey. When data collection ceased, 355 randomly selected county emergency managers had participated in the study providing a nationally generalizable study. It was discovered that NIMS may be limited in its usefulness as the foundation for our nationwide emergency management system as well as its potential for use in large-scale disaster situations because of the wide variation in the manner in which NIMS is currently being implemented in counties across the United States.

Volunteer fire department perceptions of ICS and NIMS

A mail survey designed to explore perceptions of the Incident Command System (ICS) and the National Incident Management System (NIMS) was sent to volunteer fire fighters and department chiefs in Spring of 2008. The data demonstrated that both ICS and NIMS were not well perceived among responding volunteer fire chiefs and volunteer fire fighters in North Dakota. Rather than indicating issues with the ICS or NIMS systems themselves, respondents’ comments revealed concerns with the systems to be rooted in their status as volunteers and their residence in rural areas.

Explaining implementation behaviour of the National Incident Management System (NIMS)

This paper explains the perceived implementation behaviour of counties in the United States with respect to the National Incident Management System (NIMS). The system represents a massive and historic policy mandate designed to restructure, standardise and thereby unify the efforts of a wide variety of emergency management entities. Specifically, this study examined variables identified in the NIMS and policy literature that might influence the behavioural intentions and actual behaviour of counties. It found that three key factors limit or promote how counties intend to implement NIMS and how they actually implement the system: policy characteristics related to NIMS, implementer views and a measure of local capacity. One additional variable-inter-organisational characteristics-was found to influence only actual behaviour. This studys findings suggest that the purpose underlying NIMS may not be fulfilled and confirm what disaster research has long suggested: the potential for standardisation in emergency management is limited.

Explaining the pre-disaster integration of Community Emergency Response Teams (CERTs)

This study explored the pre-disaster integration of Community Emergency Response Teams (CERTs) within local emergency management systems through semi-structured telephone interviews with 21 CERT program coordinators. It was found that the integration of CERTs varied significantly from not integrated at all to highly integrated. This paper reports the findings related to why this variation occurred. Specifically, it was found that integration seemed to covary with the resources available to the team, the opportunity within the local emergency management system for the CERT to play a role, the team’s leadership, the formality of the team’s structure, and the acceptance of CERT within the local emergency management system.

Volunteer fire chiefs' perceptions of retention and recruitment challenges in rural fire departments: The case of North Dakota, USA

Abstract Many rural volunteer fire departments in the US are contending with decreasing numbers of volunteers. General social change and changes specific to firefighting have created retention and recruitment challenges for rural fire departments across the nation. The present study examines volunteer fire chiefs’ perceptions of these challenges in a state where there has been a long-term decline in the state’s rural population. The study draws on data collected from a statewide survey of volunteer fire department chiefs in North Dakota. This study found that chiefs did not see turnover as a major problem, but chiefs did report the need for many more volunteer firefighters and much more training to improve their departments. Consistent with national studies, chiefs identified age, time demands, government mandates, and personality conflicts as turnover triggers. In contrast with national studies, chiefs did not report loss of interest as a significant trigger. Finally, the study examines the sizable gap reported by chiefs between the number of active and inactive volunteers on department rosters and suggests how inactive volunteers might be utilized to recruit.

Local Recovery Coordinators and the National Disaster Recovery Framework: Questions Regarding the Form, Necessity, and Potential of the Role

Abstract This article discusses the “uncoordinated” critique of the disaster recovery process and the current attempt to address the issue through the National Disaster Recovery Framework (NDRF). Scholars have identified that the topic of coordination in disaster recovery is one that needs policy attention and it is laudable that the federal government has provided such focused attention by way of the NDRF. Yet, it is also important to critically examine whether the NDRF’s proposed recovery coordination vision – the local disaster recovery manager – is a reasonable foundation upon which to address the issues of recovery processes nationwide. This article examines this issue by discussing the extent to which the NDRF recovery manager role is consistent with what the literature would suggest, the extent to which the NDRF role is needed, and the extent to which it is possible that the NDRF-depicted local role be fulfilled across the country. Implications for the vision set out in the NDRF and recommendations for future research are discussed in light of this analysis.

Sustainability and the local emergency manager.

OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to explore how local county emergency managers conceptualize sustainability and apply the concept within their jobs. DESIGN Qualitative, semistructured telephone and face-to-face interviews were used to collect data from a purposive and convenience sample of local county emergency managers. SETTING Interviews were conducted with Florida and North Dakota emergency managers. SUBJECTS, PARTICIPANTS Twenty-five local county emergency managers participated in this study. RESULTS The study demonstrated that there is a lack of definitional clarity in emergency manager conceptualizations of sustainability. Nevertheless, emergency managers apply the concept to their jobs in important ways. CONCLUSIONS Emergency management has the opportunity to further define its role vis-à-vis sustainability and how it does so will have implications for the communities it serves, the professionals who will be tasked with it, and the educators who will support the development of future generations of emergency management professionals.