Jessica Woodhams

An empirical test of the assumptions of case linkage and offender profiling with serial commercial robberies.

Case linkage, the identification of crimes suspected of being committed by the same perpetrator on the basis of behavioral similarity, and offender profiling, the inference of offender characteristics from offense behaviors, are used to advise police investigations and, in relation to case linkage,

The psychology of linking crimes: A review of the evidence.

Purpose. This paper is concerned with case linkage, a form of behavioural analysis used to identify crimes committed by the same offender, through their behavioural similarity. Whilst widely practised, relatively little has been published on the process of linking crimes. This review aims to draw together diverse published studies by outlining what the process involves, critically examining its underlying psychological assumptions and reviewing the empirical research conducted on its viability. n nMethods. Literature searches were completed on the electronic databases, PsychInfo and Criminal Justice Abstracts, to identify theoretical and empirical papers relating to the practice of linking crimes and to behavioural consistency. n nResults. The available research gives some support to the assumption of consistency in criminals behaviour. It also suggests that in comparison with intra-individual variation in behaviour, inter-individual variation is sufficient for the offences of one offender to be distinguished from those of other offenders. Thus, the two fundamental assumptions underlying the practice of linking crimes, behavioural consistency and inter-individual variation, are supported. However, not all behaviours show the same degree of consistency, with behaviours that are less situation-dependent, and hence more offender-initiated, showing greater consistency. n nConclusions. The limited research regarding linking offenders crimes appears promising at both a theoretical and an empirical level. There is a clear need, however, for replication studies and for research with various types of crime.

Sexually deviant juveniles: comparisons between the offender and offence characteristics of ‘child abusers’ and ‘peer abusers’

Abstract The last decade has seen increased concern regarding the sexual offences committed by young people. In line with this concern is an interest in developing an empirical research base that can help identify typologies of juvenile sex offenders and, in turn, direct resources. The current study investigated whether youths who sexually offend against children (individuals at least 5 years younger than themselves) differ in terms of offender and offence variables from juveniles who sexually assault members of their peer group. Findings were developed from data extracted from 43 files held by local Youth Offending Teams. Perpetrators of abuse were all male and were aged from 10 to 17 years. Findings indicated that juvenile child abusers experienced greater deficits in self-esteem and social isolation. In contrast, peer abusers had witnessed family violence more frequently and had family members associated with criminal activity more often. Logistic regression analysis found the variables of ‘knowing the victim’, ‘lacking age appropriate friends’, and ‘having been the victim of bullying’ all reliably predicted offender status (child vs peer). Findings suggest different typologies of juvenile sex offenders may have different routes to abusive behaviour and therefore require interventions that are tailored to their criminogenic needs.

Understanding the Factors That Affect the Severity of Juvenile Stranger Sex Offenses The Effect of Victim Characteristics and Number of Suspects

Understanding factors that affect the severity of a juvenile-stranger sexual assault has implications for crime prevention, and potentially, the assessment and treatment of juvenile sex offenders. This study investigated how victim characteristics and the number of suspects affected the use of physical violence and weapons and the occurrence of penetration in 495 allegations of sexual assault committed by juveniles against strangers. Statistically significant interactions between victim age and gender were found for occurrence of penetration and use of violence. Differences in offense characteristics were also found between offenses with varying victim-suspect age differences. When comparing the rate of penetration in the presence and absence of violence, little change was observed for lone suspects. However, the rate of penetration increased significantly for groups in the presence of physical violence, suggesting that violence in this context may be more expressive than instrumental. Theoretical explanations and practical implications are considered.

Developing a categorisation system for rapists' speech

Abstract Case linkage, the linking of crimes into series, is used in policing in the UK and other countries. Previous researchers have proposed using rapists’ speech in this practice; however, researching this application requires the development of a reliable coding system for rapists’ speech. A system was developed based on linguistic theories of pragmatics which allowed for the categorization of an utterance into a speech act type (e.g. directive). Following this classification, the qualitative properties of the utterances (e.g. the degree of threat it carried) could be captured through the use of rating scales. This system was tested against a previously developed system using 188 rapists’ utterances taken from victims’ descriptions of rape. The pragmatics-based system demonstrated higher inter-rater reliability whilst enabling the classification of a greater number of rapists’ utterances. Inter-rater reliability for the subscales was also tested using a sub-sample of 50 rapists’ utterances and inter-item correlations were calculated. Seventy-six per cent of the subscales had satisfactory to high inter-rater reliability. Based on these findings and the inter-item correlations, the classification system was revised. The potential use of this system for the practices of case linkage and offender profiling is discussed.

The impact of bullying and coping strategies on the psychological distress of young offenders

Abstract This study investigated the involvement in bullying, the psychological distress, and the coping strategies of 99 males in an English young offenders institution. The Direct and Indirect Prisoner Behaviour Checklist (DIPC; Ireland, 1998), the 21-item Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) and the 48-item Coping Styles Questionnaire (CSQ; Roger et al., 1993) were administered. Over 60% of prisoners were involved in bullying (as a victim or bully), as indicated by responses on the DIPC. Emotional and avoidance coping were significantly related to psychological distress. Bully/victims were significantly more depressed than prisoners not involved in bullying, and being a bully/victim was a significant predictor of higher stress scores. Significant correlations were observed between all psychological distress measures and the number of bullying behaviours experienced by prisoners. These findings are discussed in relation to their implications for prisoner care and avenues for future research are proposed.

Suspects who have a learning disability: police perceptions toward the client group and their knowledge about learning disabilities.

More than a million people in the UK have a learning disability. A small but significant proportion of these people will come into contact with the criminal justice system because they have offended or have been accused of an offence. This article reports on the perceptions of police officers toward this potentially vulnerable group and their knowledge of issues related to learning disabilities. Interview data were collected from eight police sergeants employed by Humberside Police and analysed using qualitative techniques. The article concludes that further training in the subject area is required. This is likely to be successful in the force under study due to their promotion of positive perceptions toward people with learning disabilities.

Female prisoners’ understanding of ‘bullying’ and their methods of coping: A multinational perspective

Abstract Whilst prison bullying is a well-researched form of aggressive behaviour, recent studies have suggested that there may be discrepancy between how prisoners and researchers understand the term ‘bullying’. Interviews with 26 female prisoners were subject to constant comparison framework analysis. More than 150 themes were identified. These suggested that whilst there is overall agreement between prisoners and researchers as to what behaviours constitute bullying, a consensus does not exist within the prisoner population. Behaviours identified as bullying behaviours by prisoners are also reported as methods of coping. Cultural differences in behaviour and how these relate to perceptions of aggression were identified by the women prisoners. The findings of this study have implications for researching bullying in institutions such as prisons, and for managing and intervening with bullies in prisons.

Fashion conscious burglars? Testing the principles of offender profiling with footwear impressions recovered at domestic burglaries

Abstract Traditionally, research on offender profiling has investigated the relationships between offender behaviour and offender characteristics. However, evidence about offender behaviour is not the only evidence available at a crime scene. This study extends previous collaborative research between forensic scientists and psychologists (e.g. Bond & Sheridan, Journal of Forensic Science, 52, 1122–1128, 2007) to investigate how forensic science can assist in the psychological process of offender profiling. Specifically, the potential utility of footwear impression evidence in the task of offender profiling is investigated. Using 155 domestic burglaries, the consistency and homology assumptions underlying offender profiling were tested. Evidence supportive of both assumptions is reported. A multiple regression analysis identified significant relationships between cost of footwear and employment status, age of offender, and the relative deprivation of his/her residence.

Introductory comments to the special issue: contemporary perspectives on sex offending, its assessment, and treatment

Research on sex offending has an established history. As an illustration, the first paper published on sex offenders in the journal Psychology, Crime & Law appeared in its first edition, some 14 years ago. A review of the journal’s contents pages since its inception reveals that at least 34 other articles have been published on the issue of sex offending within the last 14 years, with a dramatic increase in such publications in the last 8 years. Furthermore, the public’s interest in sex offending is just as apparent today as it was 14 years ago; indeed some might say that the lay person’s interest in this field had deepened. It is a type of offending behaviour that continues to have a profound impact on society and how we live. As an illustration, in 2007 2008, in England and Wales, 53 540 sexual offences were reported in the British Crime Survey with 41 460 of these representing more serious sex offences (including rape, sexual assault and sexual activity with children) (Kershaw, Nicholas, & Walker, 2008). A review of the abstracts published in the earlier issues of Psychology, Crime & Law reveals a focus largely on sex offender treatment and the treatment process. At the start of the new century this interest broadened with recognition of the diversity of the term ‘sex offender’ and the heterogeneity of the people the term represents. As a consequence, more research began to appear on the nature of sex offending. This breadth of research through the years is echoed in this special issue; the themes of diversity within the population of sex offenders as well as within this research field itself, are continued. The idea for this special issue was ‘conceived’ at a one-day conference on contemporary issues in sexual offending, which was held at the University of Leicester in 2006 and hosted by the two editors. It has since grown from the three papers given at the conference into a much larger issue which brings together eight papers on contemporary issues associated with the nature of sexual offending and intervening with the perpetrators. The special issue begins with three papers which focus on the nature and development of sex offending. Our first paper by Westerlund and colleagues reports on their twin study of over 4000 Finnish males. Within this paper the authors