Jikun Shen

A Comprehensive Analysis of the Dual Roles of BMPs in Regulating Adipogenic and Osteogenic Differentiation of Mesenchymal Progenitor Cells

Pluripotent mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are bone marrow stromal progenitor cells that can differentiate into osteogenic, chondrogenic, adipogenic, and myogenic lineages. Several signaling pathways have been shown to regulate the lineage commitment and terminal differentiation of MSCs. Here, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of the 14 types of bone morphogenetic protein (BMPs) for their abilities to regulate multilineage specific differentiation of MSCs. We found that most BMPs exhibited distinct abilities to regulate the expression of Runx2, Sox9, MyoD, and PPARgamma2. Further analysis indicated that BMP-2, BMP-4, BMP-6, BMP-7, and BMP-9 effectively induced both adipogenic and osteogenic differentiation in vitro and in vivo. BMP-induced commitment to osteogenic or adipogenic lineage was shown to be mutually exclusive. Overexpression of Runx2 enhanced BMP-induced osteogenic differentiation, whereas knockdown of Runx2 expression diminished BMP-induced bone formation with a decrease in adipocyte accumulation in vivo. Interestingly, overexpression of PPARgamma2 not only promoted adipogenic differentiation, but also enhanced osteogenic differentiation upon BMP-2, BMP-6, and BMP-9 stimulation. Conversely, MSCs with PPARgamma2 knockdown or mouse embryonic fibroblasts derived from PPARgamma2(-/-) mice exhibited a marked decrease in adipogenic differentiation, coupled with reduced osteogenic differentiation and diminished mineralization upon BMP-9 stimulation, suggesting that PPARgamma2 may play a role in BMP-induced osteogenic and adipogenic differentiation. Thus, it is important to understand the molecular mechanism behind BMP-regulated lineage divergence during MSC differentiation, as this knowledge could help us to understand the pathogenesis of skeletal diseases and may lead to the development of strategies for regenerative medicine.

Insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF-2) potentiates BMP-9-induced osteogenic differentiation and bone formation

Efficient osteogenic differentiation and bone formation from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) should have clinical applications in treating nonunion fracture healing. MSCs are adherent bone marrow stromal cells that can self‐renew and differentiate into osteogenic, chondrogenic, adipogenic, and myogenic lineages. We have identified bone morphogenetic protein 9 (BMP‐9) as one of the most osteogenic BMPs. Here we investigate the effect of insulin‐like growth factor 2 (IGF‐2) on BMP‐9‐induced bone formation. We have found that endogenous IGF‐2 expression is low in MSCs. Expression of IGF‐2 can potentiate BMP‐9‐induced early osteogenic marker alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and the expression of later markers. IGF‐2 has been shown to augment BMP‐9‐induced ectopic bone formation in the stem cell implantation assay. In perinatal limb explant culture assay, IGF‐2 enhances BMP‐9‐induced endochondral ossification, whereas IGF‐2 itself can promote the expansion of the hypertropic chondrocyte zone of the cultured limb explants. Expression of the IGF antagonists IGFBP3 and IGFBP4 leads to inhibition of the IGF‐2 effect on BMP‐9‐induced ALP activity and matrix mineralization. Mechanistically, IGF‐2 is further shown to enhance the BMP‐9‐induced BMPR‐Smad reporter activity and Smad1/5/8 nuclear translocation. PI3‐kinase (PI3K) inhibitor LY294002 abolishes the IGF‐2 potentiation effect on BMP‐9‐mediated osteogenic signaling and can directly inhibit BMP‐9 activity. These results demonstrate that BMP‐9 crosstalks with IGF‐2 through PI3K/AKT signaling pathway during osteogenic differentiation of MSCs. Taken together, our findings suggest that a combination of BMP‐9 and IGF‐2 may be explored as an effective bone‐regeneration agent to treat large segmental bony defects, nonunion fracture, and/or osteoporotic fracture.

BMP‐9‐induced osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal progenitors requires functional canonical Wnt/β‐catenin signalling

Bone morphogenetic protein 9 (BMP‐9) is a member of the transforming growth factor (TGF)‐β/BMP superfamily, and we have demonstrated that it is one of the most potent BMPs to induce osteoblast differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Here, we sought to investigate if canonical Wnt/β‐catenin signalling plays an important role in BMP‐9‐induced osteogenic differentiation of MSCs. Wnt3A and BMP‐9 enhanced each other’s ability to induce alkaline phosphatase (ALP) in MSCs and mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). Wnt antagonist FrzB was shown to inhibit BMP‐9‐induced ALP activity more effectively than Dkk1, whereas a secreted form of LPR‐5 or low‐density lipoprotein receptor‐related protein (LRP)‐6 exerted no inhibitory effect on BMP‐9‐induced ALP activity. β‐Catenin knockdown in MSCs and MEFs diminished BMP‐9‐induced ALP activity, and led to a decrease in BMP‐9‐induced osteocalcin reporter activity and BMP‐9‐induced expression of late osteogenic markers. Furthermore, β‐catenin knockdown or FrzB overexpression inhibited BMP‐9‐induced mineralization in vitro and ectopic bone formation in vivo, resulting in immature osteogenesis and the formation of chondrogenic matrix. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) analysis indicated that BMP‐9 induced recruitment of both Runx2 and β‐catenin to the osteocalcin promoter. Thus, we have demonstrated that canonical Wnt signalling, possibly through interactions between β‐catenin and Runx2, plays an important role in BMP‐9‐induced osteogenic differentiation of MSCs.

Hey1 Basic Helix-Loop-Helix Protein Plays an Important Role in Mediating BMP9-induced Osteogenic Differentiation of Mesenchymal Progenitor Cells

Pluripotent mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are bone marrow stromal progenitor cells that can differentiate into osteogenic, chondrogenic, adipogenic, and myogenic lineages. We previously demonstrated that bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) 9 is one of the most potent and yet least characterized BMPs that are able to induce osteogenic differentiation of MSCs both in vitro and in vivo. Here, we conducted gene expression-profiling analysis and identified that Hey1 of the hairy/Enhancer of split-related repressor protein basic helix-loop-helix family was among the most significantly up-regulated early targets in BMP9-stimulated MSCs. We demonstrated that Hey1 expression was up-regulated at the immediate early stage of BMP9-induced osteogenic differentiation. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis indicated that Hey1 may be a direct target of the BMP9-induced Smad signaling pathway. Silencing Hey1 expression diminished BMP9-induced osteogenic differentiation both in vitro and in vivo and led to chondrogenic differentiation. Likewise, constitutive Hey1 expression augmented BMP9-mediated bone matrix mineralization. Hey1 and Runx2 were shown to act synergistically in BMP9-induced osteogenic differentiation, and Runx2 expression significantly decreased in the absence of Hey1, suggesting that Runx2 may function downstream of Hey1. Accordingly, the defective osteogenic differentiation caused by Hey1 knockdown was rescued by exogenous Runx2 expression. Thus, our findings suggest that Hey1, through its interplay with Runx2, may play an important role in regulating BMP9-induced osteoblast lineage differentiation of MSCs.

TGFbeta/BMP type I receptors ALK1 and ALK2 are essential for BMP9-induced osteogenic signaling in mesenchymal stem cells.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are bone marrow stromal cells that can differentiate into multiple lineages. We previously demonstrated that BMP9 is one of the most potent BMPs to induce osteogenic differentiation of MSCs. BMP9 is one of the least studied BMPs. Whereas ALK1, ALK5, and/or endoglin have recently been reported as potential BMP9 type I receptors in endothelial cells, little is known about type I receptor involvement in BMP9-induced osteogenic differentiation in MSCs. Here, we conduct a comprehensive analysis of the functional role of seven type I receptors in BMP9-induced osteogenic signaling in MSCs. We have found that most of the seven type I receptors are expressed in MSCs. However, using dominant-negative mutants for the seven type I receptors, we demonstrate that only ALK1 and ALK2 mutants effectively inhibit BMP9-induced osteogenic differentiation in vitro and ectopic ossification in MSC implantation assays. Protein fragment complementation assays demonstrate that ALK1 and ALK2 directly interact with BMP9. Likewise, RNAi silencing of ALK1 and ALK2 expression inhibits BMP9-induced BMPR-Smad activity and osteogenic differentiation in MSCs both in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, our results strongly suggest that ALK1 and ALK2 may play an important role in mediating BMP9-induced osteogenic differentiation. These findings should further aid us in understanding the molecular mechanism through which BMP9 regulates osteogenic differentiation of MSCs.

Retinoic Acids Potentiate BMP9-Induced Osteogenic Differentiation of Mesenchymal Progenitor Cells

Background As one of the least studied bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), BMP9 is one of the most osteogenic BMPs. Retinoic acid (RA) signaling is known to play an important role in development, differentiation and bone metabolism. In this study, we investigate the effect of RA signaling on BMP9-induced osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal progenitor cells (MPCs). Methodology/Principal Findings Both primary MPCs and MPC line are used for BMP9 and RA stimulation. Recombinant adenoviruses are used to deliver BMP9, RARα and RXRα into MPCs. The in vitro osteogenic differentiation is monitored by determining the early and late osteogenic markers and matrix mineralization. Mouse perinatal limb explants and in vivo MPC implantation experiments are carried out to assess bone formation. We find that both 9CRA and ATRA effectively induce early osteogenic marker, such as alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and late osteogenic markers, such as osteopontin (OPN) and osteocalcin (OC). BMP9-induced osteogenic differentiation and mineralization is synergistically enhanced by 9CRA and ATRA in vitro. 9CRA and ATRA are shown to induce BMP9 expression and activate BMPR Smad-mediated transcription activity. Using mouse perinatal limb explants, we find that BMP9 and RAs act together to promote the expansion of hypertrophic chondrocyte zone at growth plate. Progenitor cell implantation studies reveal that co-expression of BMP9 and RXRα or RARα significantly increases trabecular bone and osteoid matrix formation. Conclusion/Significance Our results strongly suggest that retinoid signaling may synergize with BMP9 activity in promoting osteogenic differentiation of MPCs. This knowledge should expand our understanding about how BMP9 cross-talks with other signaling pathways. Furthermore, a combination of BMP9 and retinoic acid (or its agonists) may be explored as effective bone regeneration therapeutics to treat large segmental bony defects, non-union fracture, and/or osteoporotic fracture.

Insulin-like growth factor binding protein 5 suppresses tumor growth and metastasis of human osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most common primary malignancy of bone. There is a critical need to identify the events that lead to the poorly understood mechanism of OS development and metastasis. The goal of this investigation is to identify and characterize a novel marker of OS progression. We have established and characterized a highly metastatic OS subline that is derived from the less metastatic human MG63 line through serial passages in nude mice via intratibial injections. Microarray analysis of the parental MG63, the highly metastatic MG63.2 subline, as well as the corresponding primary tumors and pulmonary metastases revealed insulin-like growth factor binding protein 5 (IGFBP5) to be one of the significantly downregulated genes in the metastatic subline. Confirmatory quantitative RT–PCR on 20 genes of interest demonstrated IGFBP5 to be the most differentially expressed and was therefore chosen to be one of the genes for further investigation. Adenoviral mediated overexpression and knockdown of IGFBP5 in the MG63 and MG63.2 cell lines, as well as other OS lines (143B and MNNG/HOS) that are independent of our MG63 lines, were employed to examine the role of IGFBP5. We found that overexpression of IGFBP5 inhibited in vitro cell proliferation, migration and invasion of OS cells. Additionally, IGFBP5 overexpression promoted apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in the G1 phase. In an orthotopic xenograft animal model, overexpression of IGFBP5 inhibited OS tumor growth and pulmonary metastases. Conversely, siRNA-mediated knockdown of IGFBP5 promoted OS tumor growth and pulmonary metastases in vivo. Immunohistochemical staining of patient-matched primary and metastatic OS samples demonstrated decreased IGFBP5 expression in the metastases. These results suggest 1) a role for IGFBP5 as a novel marker that has an important role in the pathogenesis of OS, and 2) that the loss of IGFBP5 function may contribute to more metastatic phenotypes in OS.

Tetrandrine Inhibits Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling and Suppresses Tumor Growth of Human Colorectal Cancer

As one of the most common malignancies, colon cancer is initiated by abnormal activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Although the treatment options have increased for some patients, overall progress has been modest. Thus, there is a great need to develop new treatments. We have found that bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloid tetrandrine (TET) exhibits anticancer activity. TET is used as a calcium channel blocker to treat hypertensive and arrhythmic conditions in Chinese medicine. Here, we investigate the molecular basis underlying TETs anticancer activity. We compare TET with six chemotherapy drugs in eight cancer lines and find that TET exhibits comparable anticancer activities with camptothecin, vincristine, paclitaxel, and doxorubicin, and better than that of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and carboplatin. TET IC50 is ≤5 μM in most of the tested cancer lines. TET exhibits synergistic anticancer activity with 5-FU and reduces migration and invasion capabilities of HCT116 cells. Furthermore, TET induces apoptosis and inhibits xenograft tumor growth of colon cancer. TET treatment leads to a decrease in β-catenin protein level in xenograft tumors, which is confirmed by T-cell factor/lymphocyte enhancer factor and c-Myc reporter assays. It is noteworthy that HCT116 cells with allelic oncogenic β-catenin deleted are less sensitive to TET-mediated inhibition of proliferation, viability, and xenograft tumor growth. Thus, our findings strongly suggest that the anticancer effect of TET in colon cancer may be at least in part mediated by targeting β-catenin activity. Therefore, TET may be used alone or in combination as an effective anticancer agent.

Synergistic Antitumor Effect of the Activated PPARγ and Retinoid Receptors on Human Osteosarcoma

Purpose: Osteosarcoma is the most common primary malignancy of bone. The long-term survival of osteosarcoma patients hinges on our ability to prevent and/or treat recurrent and metastatic lesions. Here, we investigated the activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and retinoid receptors as a means of differentiation therapy for human osteosarcoma. Experimental Design: We examined the endogenous expression of PPARγ and retinoid receptors in a panel of osteosarcoma cells. Ligands or adenovirus-mediated overexpression of these receptors were tested to inhibit proliferation and induce apoptosis of osteosarcoma cells. Osteosarcoma cells overexpressing the receptors were introduced into an orthotopic tumor model. The effect of these ligands on osteoblastic differentiation was further investigated. Results: Endogenous expression of PPARγ and isotypes of retinoic acid receptor (RAR) and retinoid X receptor (RXR) is detected in most osteosarcoma cells. Troglitazone, 9-cis retinoic acid (RA), and all-trans RA, as well as overexpression of PPARγ, RARα, and RXRα, inhibit osteosarcoma cell proliferation and induce apoptosis. A synergistic inhibitory effect on osteosarcoma cell proliferation is observed between troglitazone and retinoids, as well as with the overexpression pairs of PPARγ/RARα, or PPARγ/RXRα. Overexpression of PPARγ, RARα, RXRα, or in combinations inhibits osteosarcoma tumor growth and cell proliferation in vivo. Retinoids (and to a lesser extent, troglitazone) are shown to promote osteogenic differentiation of osteosarcoma cells and mesenchymal stem cells. Conclusions: Activation of PPARγ, RARα, and RXRα may act synergistically on inhibiting osteosarcoma cell proliferation and tumor growth, which is at least partially mediated by promoting osteoblastic differentiation of osteosarcoma cells. Clin Cancer Res; 16(8); 2235–45. ©2010 AACR.

Ginsenoside Rg3 inhibits colorectal tumor growth through the down-regulation of Wnt/ß-catenin signaling

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common and deadly malignancies in the world. Most CRCs are initiated by aberrant activation of the Wnt/ß-catenin signaling pathway. Despite the advances in its early diagnosis, optimized surgical approaches, and chemotherapies, the clinical management of advanced CRC requires effective adjuvant agents. Ginsenoside Rg3 is a single compound isolated from American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L., Araliaceae) and Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer). We investigated the anticancer activity of Rg3 on colon cancer cells and its potential molecular mechanism behind Rg3s anticancer activity. We found that Rg3 inhibits cell proliferation and viability of cancer cells in vitro. This inhibitory effect of Rg3 is, at least in part, mediated by blocking nuclear translocation of the ß-catenin protein and hence inhibiting ß-catenin/Tcf transcriptional activity. Allelic deletion of the oncogenic ß-catenin in HCT116 cells renders the cells more sensitive to Rg3-induced growth inhibition. Using the xenograft tumor model of human colon cancer, we have demonstrated that Rg3 effectively inhibits the growth of tumors derived from the human colon cancer cell line HCT116. Histologic examination revealed that Rg3 inhibits cancer cell proliferation, decreases PNCA expression and diminishes nuclear staining intensity of ß-catenin. Taken together, our results strongly suggest that the anticancer activity of Rg3 may be in part caused by blocking the nuclear translocation of ß-catenin in colon cancer cells. This line of investigation may lead to the development of novel therapies in which Rg3 can be used as an effective adjuvant agent for the clinical management of colorectal cancers.