Jim Whitehead

Collaboration in Software Engineering: A Roadmap

Software engineering projects are inherently cooperative, requiring many software engineers to coordinate their efforts to produce a large software system. Integral to this effort is developing shared understanding surrounding multiple artifacts, each artifact embodying its own model, over the entire development process. This focus on model- oriented collaboration embedded within a larger process is what distinguishes collaboration research in software engineering from broader collaboration research, which tends to address artifact-neutral coordination technologies and toolkits. This article first presents a list of goals for software engineering collaboration, then surveys existing collaboration support tools in software engineering. The survey covers both tools that focus on a single artifact or stage in the development process (requirements support tools, UML collaboration tools), and tools that support the representation and execution of an entire software process. Important collaboration standards are also described. Several possible future directions for collaboration in software engineering are presented, including tight integration between web and desktop development environments, broader participation by customers and end users in the entire development process, capturing argumentation surrounding design rationale, and use of massively multiplayer online (MMO) game technology as a collaboration medium. The article concludes by noting a problem in performing research on collaborative systems, that of assessing how well certain artifacts, models, and embedded processes work, and whether they are better than other approaches.

Rhythm-based level generation for 2D platformers

We present a rhythm-based method for the automatic generation of levels for 2D platformers, where the rhythm is that which the player feels with his hands while playing. Levels are created using a grammar-based method: first generating rhythms, then generating geometry based on those rhythms. Generation is constrained by a set of style parameters tweakable by a human designer. The approach also minimizes the amount of content that must be manually authored, instead relying on geometry components that are included in the level designers tileset and a set of jump types. Our results show that this method produces an impressive variety of levels, all of which are fully playable.

Design patterns in FPS levels

Level designers create gameplay through geometry, AI scripting, and item placement. There is little formal understanding of this process, but rather a large body of design lore and rules of thumb. As a result, there is no accepted common language for describing the building blocks of level design and the gameplay they create. This paper presents level design patterns for first-person shooter (FPS) games, providing cause-effect relationships between level design elements and gameplay. These patterns allow designers to create more interesting and varied levels.

Tanagra: a mixed-initiative level design tool

Tanagra is a prototype mixed-initiative design tool for 2D platformer level design, in which a human and computer can work together to produce a level. The human designer can place constraints on a continuously running level generator, in the form of exact geometry placement and manipulation of the levels pacing. The computer then fills in the rest of the level with geometry that guarantees playability, or informs the designer that there is no level that meets their requirements. This paper presents the design of Tanagra, a discussion of the editing operations it provides to the designer, and an evaluation of the expressivity of its generator.

Analyzing the expressive range of a level generator

This paper explores a method for analyzing the expressive range of a procedural level generator, and applies this method to Launchpad, a level generator for 2D platformers. Instead of focusing on the number of levels that can be created or the amount of time it takes to create them, we instead examine the variety of generated levels and the impact of changing input parameters. With the rise in the popularity of PCG, it is important to be able to fairly evaluate and compare different generation techniques within similar domains. We have found that such analysis can also expose unexpected biases in the generation algorithm and holes in the expressive range that drive future work.

Launchpad: A Rhythm-Based Level Generator for 2-D Platformers

Launchpad is an autonomous level generator that is based on a formal model of 2-D platformer level design. Levels are built out of small segments called “rhythm groups,” which are generated using a two-tiered, grammar-based approach. These segments are pieced together into complete levels that are then rated according to a set of design heuristics. Generation can be controlled using a set of parameters that influence the level pacing and geometry. The approach minimizes the amount of content that must be manually authored: instead of piecing together large segments of a level, Launchpad uses base components that are commonly found in a number of 2-D platformers. Launchpad produces an impressive variety of levels which are all guaranteed to be playable.

A framework for analysis of 2D platformer levels

Levels are the space where a player explores the rules and mechanics of a game; as such, good level design is critical to the game design process. While there are many broad design principles, level design is inherently genre-specific due to the wide variety of rules and types of challenge found between genres. Determining genre-specific design principles requires an in-depth analysis of games within the genre. We present such an analysis for the 2D platformer genre, examining level components and structure with a view to better understanding their level design. We then use this analysis to present a model for platformer levels, specifically focusing on areas of challenge. Our framework provides a common vocabulary for these items and provides level designers with a method for thinking about elements of platformers and how to compose them to create interesting and challenging levels.

Situating quests: design patterns for quest and level design in role-playing games

The design of role-playing games (RPGs) is very complex, involving an intricate interweaving of narrative, quest design, and level design. As an important means for conveying the games story, quests dictate the setting and contents of levels. Levels provide challenges for the player to overcome in the service of completing quests, and their structure can invite the inclusion of certain kinds of quests. This paper presents an analysis of design patterns present in existing RPGs that aims to better understand such relationships. These patterns identify common design practices for quests and levels at many different levels of granularity.

PCG-based game design: creating Endless Web

This paper describes the creation of the game Endless Web, a 2D platforming game in which the players actions determine the ongoing creation of the world she is exploring. Endless Web is an example of a PCG-based game: it uses procedural content generation (PCG) as a mechanic, and its PCG system, Launchpad, greatly influenced the aesthetics of the game. All of the players strategies for the game revolve around the use of procedural content generation. Many design challenges were encountered in the design and creation of Endless Web, for both the game and modifications that had to be made to Launchpad. These challenges arise largely from a loss of fine-grained control over the players experience; instead of being able to carefully craft each element the player can interact with, the designer must instead craft algorithms to produce a range of content the player might experience. In this paper we provide a definition of PCG-based game design and describe the challenges faced in creating a PCG-based game. We offer our solutions, which impacted both the game and the underlying level generator, and identify issues which may be particularly important as this area matures.

PCG-based game design: enabling new play experiences through procedural content generation

This paper discusses the concept of procedural content generation-based (PCG-based) game design as a way to create new kinds of playable experiences. We examine the different ways that PCG is currently used in games, and how that use impacts the meaning of the game and the players experience. Finally, we discuss the design and implementation of an experimental PCG-based 2D platformer called Rathenn, which provides the player with control over the level they are playing while they explore both the physical and generative spaces of the game.