Jiří Jiráček

How insulin engages its primary binding site on the insulin receptor.

Insulin receptor signalling has a central role in mammalian biology, regulating cellular metabolism, growth, division, differentiation and survival. Insulin resistance contributes to the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus and the onset of Alzheimer’s disease; aberrant signalling occurs in diverse cancers, exacerbated by cross-talk with the homologous type 1 insulin-like growth factor receptor (IGF1R). Despite more than three decades of investigation, the three-dimensional structure of the insulin–insulin receptor complex has proved elusive, confounded by the complexity of producing the receptor protein. Here we present the first view, to our knowledge, of the interaction of insulin with its primary binding site on the insulin receptor, on the basis of four crystal structures of insulin bound to truncated insulin receptor constructs. The direct interaction of insulin with the first leucine-rich-repeat domain (L1) of insulin receptor is seen to be sparse, the hormone instead engaging the insulin receptor carboxy-terminal α-chain (αCT) segment, which is itself remodelled on the face of L1 upon insulin binding. Contact between insulin and L1 is restricted to insulin B-chain residues. The αCT segment displaces the B-chain C-terminal β-strand away from the hormone core, revealing the mechanism of a long-proposed conformational switch in insulin upon receptor engagement. This mode of hormone–receptor recognition is novel within the broader family of receptor tyrosine kinases. We support these findings by photo-crosslinking data that place the suggested interactions into the context of the holoreceptor and by isothermal titration calorimetry data that dissect the hormone–insulin receptor interface. Together, our findings provide an explanation for a wealth of biochemical data from the insulin receptor and IGF1R systems relevant to the design of therapeutic insulin analogues.

Theory of the correlation between capillary and free-flow zone electrophoresis and its use for the conversion of analytical capillary separations to continuous free-flow preparative processes. Application to analysis and preparation of fragments of insulin.

A basic theoretical description of the correlation between capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) and free-flow zone electrophoresis (FFZE) is presented. The theory of the correlation between CZE and FFZE results from the fact that both methods are based on the same separation principle, zone electrophoresis, and both are performed in the carrierless separation medium with the same composition of the background electrolyte. The equations describing the movement of the charged and noncharged particles in the d.c. electric field applied in the capillary and in the flow-through electrophoretic chamber are presented and used for the quantitative description of the correlation between CZE and FFZE. Based on the theory of the correlation between CZE and FFZE a procedure has been developed for conversion of analytical, microscale CZE separations into continuous preparative separation processes realized by FFZE. Practical application of the developed procedure is demonstrated by CZE analysis and FFZE preparation of an octapeptide fragment of human insulin.

Implications for the Active Form of Human Insulin Based on the Structural Convergence of Highly Active Hormone Analogues.

Insulin is a key protein hormone that regulates blood glucose levels and, thus, has widespread impact on lipid and protein metabolism. Insulin action is manifested through binding of its monomeric form to the Insulin Receptor (IR). At present, however, our knowledge about the structural behavior of insulin is based upon inactive, multimeric, and storage-like states. The active monomeric structure, when in complex with the receptor, must be different as the residues crucial for the interactions are buried within the multimeric forms. Although the exact nature of the insulin’s induced-fit is unknown, there is strong evidence that the C-terminal part of the B-chain is a dynamic element in insulin activation and receptor binding. Here, we present the design and analysis of highly active (200–500%) insulin analogues that are truncated at residue 26 of the B-chain (B26). They show a structural convergence in the form of a new β-turn at B24-B26. We propose that the key element in insulin’s transition, from an inactive to an active state, may be the formation of the β-turn at B24-B26 associated with a trans to cis isomerisation at the B25-B26 peptide bond. Here, this turn is achieved with N-methylated L-amino acids adjacent to the trans to cis switch at the B25-B26 peptide bond or by the insertion of certain D-amino acids at B26. The resultant conformational changes unmask previously buried amino acids that are implicated in IR binding and provide structural details for new approaches in rational design of ligands effective in combating diabetes.

Determination of dissociation constant of phosphinate group in phosphinic pseudopeptides by capillary zone electrophoresis

Capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) was used for determination of dissociation constant of phosphinate group in phosphinic pseudopeptides, i.e. peptides where one peptide bond is substituted by phosphinic acid moiety -PO2--CH2-. The dissociation constants were determined for a set of newly synthesized pseudopeptides derived from a structure N-Ac-Val-Ala(psi)(PO2--CH2)Leu-His-NH2 by nonlinear regression of experimentally measured pH dependence of their effective electrophoretic mobilities. CZE experiments were carried out in Tris-phosphate background electrolytes in the pH range 1.4-3.2. The pseudopeptides were synthesized as a mixture of four diastereomers, the separation of which was achieved in most cases. Moreover, differences of the effective mobilities of the pseudopeptide diastereomers enabled simultaneous determination of the dissociation constant of their phosphinate group without necessity of previous isolation of individual isomers.

Insulin analogues with modifications at position B26. Divergence of binding affinity and biological activity.

In this study, we prepared several shortened and full-length insulin analogues with substitutions at position B26. We compared the binding affinities of the analogues for rat adipose membranes with their ability to lower the plasma glucose level in nondiabetic Wistar rats in vivo after subcutaneous administration, and also with their ability to stimulate lipogenesis in vitro. We found that [NMeHisB26]-DTI-NH 2 and [NMeAlaB26]-DTI-NH 2 were very potent insulin analogues with respect to their binding affinities (214 and 465%, respectively, compared to that of human insulin), but they were significantly less potent than human insulin in vivo. Their full-length counterparts, [NMeHisB26]-insulin and [NMeAlaB26]-insulin, were less effective than human insulin with respect to binding affinity (10 and 21%, respectively) and in vivo activity, while [HisB26]-insulin exhibited properties similar to those of human insulin in all of the tests we carried out. The ability of selected analogues to stimulate lipogenesis in adipocytes was correlated with their biological potency in vivo. Taken together, our data suggest that the B26 residue and residues B26-B30 have ambiguous roles in binding affinity and in vivo activity. We hypothesize that our shortened analogues, [NMeHisB26]-DTI-NH 2 and [NMeAlaB26]-DTI-NH 2, have different modes of interaction with the insulin receptor compared with natural insulin and that these different modes of interaction result in a less effective metabolic response of the insulin receptor, despite the high binding potency of these analogues.

Structural integrity of the B24 site in human insulin is important for hormone functionality.

Background: The structure of the C-terminal B21-B30 chain of insulin bound to the insulin receptor remains undetermined. Results: The structures of B24-modified insulins were determined. Conclusion: The structural integrity of PheB24 but flexibility of B25-B30 insulin residues are important for receptor binding. Significance: The knowledge of the receptor-bound structure of insulin is important for the design of new insulin receptor agonists. Despite the recent first structural insight into the insulin-insulin receptor complex, the role of the C terminus of the B-chain of insulin in this assembly remains unresolved. Previous studies have suggested that this part of insulin must rearrange to reveal amino acids crucial for interaction with the receptor. The role of the invariant PheB24, one of the key residues of the hormone, in this process remains unclear. For example, the B24 site functionally tolerates substitutions to d-amino acids but not to l-amino acids. Here, we prepared and characterized a series of B24-modified insulin analogues, also determining the structures of [d-HisB24]-insulin and [HisB24]-insulin. The inactive [HisB24]-insulin molecule is remarkably rigid due to a tight accommodation of the l-His side chain in the B24 binding pocket that results in the stronger tethering of B25-B28 residues to the protein core. In contrast, the highly active [d-HisB24]-insulin is more flexible, and the reverse chirality of the B24Cα atom swayed the d-HisB24 side chain into the solvent. Furthermore, the pocket vacated by PheB24 is filled by PheB25, which mimics the PheB24 side and main chains. The B25→B24 downshift results in a subsequent downshift of TyrB26 into the B25 site and the departure of B26-B30 residues away from the insulin core. Our data indicate the importance of the aromatic l-amino acid at the B24 site and the structural invariance/integrity of this position for an effective binding of insulin to its receptor. Moreover, they also suggest limited, B25-B30 only, unfolding of the C terminus of the B-chain upon insulin activation.

Combining combinatorial chemistry and affinity chromatography: highly selective inhibitors of human betaine: homocysteine S-methyltransferase.

A new method to find novel protein targets for ligands of interest is proposed. The principle of this approach is based on affinity chromatography and combinatorial chemistry. The proteins within a crude rat liver homogenate were allowed to interact with a combinatorial library of phosphinic pseudopeptides immobilized on affinity columns. Betaine: homocysteine S-methyltransferase (BHMT) was one of the proteins that was retained and subsequently eluted from these supports. The phosphinic pseudopeptides, which served as immobilized ligands for the isolation of rat BHMT, were then tested for their ability to inhibit human recombinant BHMT in solution. The most potent inhibitor also behaved as a selective ligand for the affinity purification of BHMT from a complex media. Further optimization uncovered Val-Phe-psi[PO(2-)-CH(2)]-Leu-His-NH(2) as a potent BHMT inhibitor that has an IC(50) of about 1 microM.

Two-dimensional electrophoretic comparison of metastatic and non-metastatic human breast tumors using in vitro cultured epithelial cells derived from the cancer tissues

BackgroundBreast carcinomas represent a heterogeneous group of tumors diverse in behavior, outcome, and response to therapy. Identification of proteins resembling the tumor biology can improve the diagnosis, prediction, treatment selection, and targeting of therapy. Since the beginning of the post-genomic era, the focus of molecular biology gradually moved from genomes to proteins and proteomes and to their functionality. Proteomics can potentially capture dynamic changes in protein expression integrating both genetic and epigenetic influences.MethodsWe prepared primary cultures of epithelial cells from 23 breast cancer tissue samples and performed comparative proteomic analysis. Seven patients developed distant metastases within three-year follow-up. These samples were included into a metastase-positive group, the others formed a metastase-negative group. Two-dimensional electrophoretical (2-DE) gels in pH range 4–7 were prepared. Spot densities in 2-DE protein maps were subjected to statistical analyses (R/maanova package) and data-mining analysis (GUHA). For identification of proteins in selected spots, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was employed.ResultsThree protein spots were significantly altered between the metastatic and non-metastatic groups. The correlations were proven at the 0.05 significance level. Nucleophosmin was increased in the group with metastases. The levels of 2,3-trans-enoyl-CoA isomerase and glutathione peroxidase 1 were decreased.ConclusionWe have performed an extensive proteomic study of mammary epithelial cells from breast cancer patients. We have found differentially expressed proteins between the samples from metastase-positive and metastase-negative patient groups.

Non-Equivalent Role of Inter- and Intramolecular Hydrogen Bonds in the Insulin Dimer Interface.

Apart from its role in insulin receptor (IR) activation, the C terminus of the B-chain of insulin is also responsible for the formation of insulin dimers. The dimerization of insulin plays an important role in the endogenous delivery of the hormone and in the administration of insulin to patients. Here, we investigated insulin analogues with selective N-methylations of peptide bond amides at positions B24, B25, or B26 to delineate their structural and functional contribution to the dimer interface. All N-methylated analogues showed impaired binding affinities to IR, which suggests a direct IR-interacting role for the respective amide hydrogens. The dimerization capabilities of analogues were investigated by isothermal microcalorimetry. Selective N-methylations of B24, B25, or B26 amides resulted in reduced dimerization abilities compared with native insulin (Kd = 8.8 μm). Interestingly, although the N-methylation in [NMeTyrB26]-insulin or [NMePheB24]-insulin resulted in Kd values of 142 and 587 μm, respectively, the [NMePheB25]-insulin did not form dimers even at high concentrations. This effect may be attributed to the loss of intramolecular hydrogen bonding between NHB25 and COA19, which connects the B-chain β-strand to the core of the molecule. The release of the B-chain β-strand from this hydrogen bond lock may result in its higher mobility, thereby shifting solution equilibrium toward the monomeric state of the hormone. The study was complemented by analyses of two novel analogue crystal structures. All examined analogues crystallized only in the most stable R6 form of insulin oligomers (even if the dimer interface was totally disrupted), confirming the role of R6-specific intra/intermolecular interactions for hexamer stability.

Analysis and characterization of phosphinic pseudopeptides by capillary zone electrophoresis

Capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) was applied to analysis and characterization of phosphinic pseudopeptides with the general structure N‐Ac‐Val‐Alaψ(