Jo-Anne K. Finegan

Sex-typed play in gender-disturbed children: A comparison to sibling and psychiatric controls

Gender-disturbed children (n = 14) were compared to their preadolescent siblings (n = 16) and psychiatric controls (n = 13) on a sex-typed free-play task previously shown to differentiate gender-disturbed boys from normal boys. On three separate trials totaling 20 minutes, the gender-disturbed children played for a significantly longer period of time with cross-sex toys and for a significantly shorter period of time with same-sex toys than did the two control groups. The gender-disturbed children also showed greater trial-to-trial consistency in their play preferences than the other two groups. The utility of this task in the assessment of childhood gender disturbance is discussed. In addition, the results are discussed in relation to a number of perspectives regarding both typical and atypical gender identity development in childhood.

Two subgroups of gender-problem children.

Gender-referred children who met the DSM-III diagnostic criteria for gender identity disorder of childhood (n =21) and gender-referred children who did not meet these criteria (n =15) were compared with regard to demographic, gender role, and behavioral disturbance information. As judged by parental questionnaires and behavioral tests, the cross-gender role behavior of gender-referred children who met the DSM-III criteria was generally more extreme than that of their non-DSM-III counterparts. These two diagnostically defined subgroups did not, however, differ in the degree of their behavioral and emotional disturbance. The DSM-III children were significantly younger than the non-DSM-III children, but the extent to which the disparity in age accounted for the gender role differences appeared equivocal. The implications of these findings for the diagnosis and assessment of gender-referred children are discussed.

Study of behavioral phenotypes: Goals and methodological considerations

The study of behavioral phenotypes associated with genetic syndromes has gained increasing momentum over the past two decades. In this paper, the definition of behavioral phenotypes is presented and the complexities and obstacles to progress in this field are summarized. Also described are the goals of such investigations, including the need for syndrome delineation, provision of guidance for clinical management, contributions to understanding brain-behavior relations, advancements in developmental theory, and gaining understanding of the genetic bases of behavior. Methodological issues addressed in relation to such goals include the need for cross-disciplinary collaboration, concerns regarding sampling methods and comparison group selection, and developmental considerations. The complexity of cognitive abilities, the limitations of existing tests and measures, and ways of approaching the study of behavior are discussed. A final comment concerns the potential risks of research in behavioral phenotypes.

Factor structure of the preschool characteristics questionnaire

Abstract To develop a measure of temperament for preschool-age children, the Child Characteristics Questionnaire (CCQ) for 24-month-old toddlers (Lee & Bates, 1985) was modified for use at age 4. The modified version was called the Preschool Characteristics Questionnaire (PCQ) and was completed by 121 mothers. Maximum likelihood factor analysis of the PCQ revealed four factors—Persistent/Unstoppable, Negative Adaptation and Affect, Difficult, and Irregular—accounting for 36.1% of the total variance. Correlations between difficult temperament at age 7 months and age 4 years revealed moderate stability of the difficult temperament trait. Of the infants classified as difficult at age 7 months, 46% continued to be perceived as difficult at age 4.

Child outcome following mid‐trimester amniocentesis: development, behaviour, and physical status at age 4 years

Summary. Four‐year‐old children whose mothers had mid‐trimester amniocentesis (n = 88) were compared with children whose mothers chose not to have the procedure (n = 46). Intelligence, visual‐motor‐perccptual skills, language, behaviour, social competence, temperament, physical growth, hearing, and middle‐ear function were measured using standardized procedures. Health histories were obtained by maternal report. The results suggest that the wide range of developmental and behavioural variables studied is not influcnced by removal of amniotic fluid in the mid‐trimester. However, mothers who had amniocentesis were more likely to report a history of ear infections in their child (P = 0.04). In support of this finding were the results of audiological assessment which demonstrated a trend toward a higher rate of bilateral middle‐ear impedance abnormalities in children whose mothers had amniocentesis (P = 0.06). Further study of the upper respiratory system is recommended to explore potential long‐term sequelae of mid‐trimester amniocentesis.

Patterns of intellectual functioning and spatial ability in boys and gender identity disorder.

Preadolescent boys with Gender Identity Disorder (N = 13), their brothers (N = 8) and boys referred for psychiatric assessment (N = 10) were administered age-appropriate Wechsler intelligence scales. Four hypotheses regarding patterns of intellectual functioning and spatial ability were tested. A previous suggestion that the development of boyhood femininity is associated with higher than average IQ was not supported, since the IQs of the feminine boys and their brothers did not differ. A report of enhanced verbal ability as compared with perceptual organization also was not replicated in these feminine boys. On Kaufmans “Freedom from Distractibility” factor, the feminine boys and their brothers obtained scores as low as the psychiatric controls; that is, all three groups were equally distractible. It was suggested that anxiety contributed to poor performance on this factor. Unlike the control groups, the feminine boys obtained low scores on a test of spatial ability (Block Design) as compared to their scores on a verbal task (Vocabulary). The association between a feminine gender role and relatively poor spatial ability was discussed.

Infant outcome following mid-trimester amniocentesis: development and physical status at age six months.

Summary. Ninety‐one infants whose mothers had had amniocentesis, because age increased their risk for a fetal chromosome abnormality, were compared with 53 infants whose mothers chose not to have the test. Mental and motor development and temperament were studied to assess potential influence of amniocentesis on the brain. Physical growth was assessed and the infants were examined for orthopaedic abnormalities and needle injury. The results indicated that amniocentesis does not appear to influence infant mental and motor development, temperament, physical growth or the risk of orthopaedic abnormalities. However, amniocentesis is not entirely free of risk because several of the infants had needle marks. Reassessment of the cohort at age 4 and 7 years and will provide information on the potential longer term consequences of mid‐trimester amniocentesis.

Midtrimester amniocentesis: Obstetric outcome and neonatal neurobehavioral status

The possible effects of midtrimester genetic amniocentesis on neurobehavioral status were studied in newborn infants of women who had had the procedure (N = 100) and in newborn infants of women who had declined the test (N = 56). Brazeltons Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale was administered to newborn infants born at term and did not reveal consequences of amniocentesis on neonatal orientation, range of state, motor ability, autonomic regulation, regulation of state, response decrement, or reflexes. Information on obstetric complications also was obtained. The findings raised questions regarding the temporal relationship between amniocentesis and fetal loss and focused attention on preterm birth as a potential risk that warrants further investigation. This study provides the foundation for our prospective longitudinal follow-up in which the cohort will be reassessed later in infancy and in childhood.

Gender Identity Problems of Children and Adolescents the Establishment of a Special Clinic

Theoretical accounts of the origins of gender identity disturbance are reviewed and then followed by a description of the establishment of a child and adolescent gender identity clinic. Clinical impressions of 16 gender disturbed patients are presented and the position is taken that most patients manifested a confused, as opposed to fixed, core gender identity.

Children whose mothers had second trimester amniocentesis: follow up at school age

Objective To explore potential long term consequences of second trimester amniocentesis.