Jo Ellen Force

The human ecosystem Part I: The human ecosystem as an organizing concept in ecosystem management

The organization and description of a comprehensive ecosystem model useful to ecosystem management is necessary. In this article, we propose the human ecosystem as an organizing concept for ecosystem management. First, we describe the history of the human ecosystem idea; both biological ecology and mainstream social theories provide useful guidance. Next, we present the key elements of a human ecosystem model: critical resources (natural, socioeconomic, and cultural), social institutions, social cycles, and social order (identities, norms, and hierarchies). In each element, we (1) provide a general definition and description, (2) suggest ways that the variable can be measured, and (3) give selected examples of how it may influence other components of the human ecosystem. The article concludes with specific suggestions as to how the human ecosystem model can play an organizing role in ecosystem management.

So Happy Together or Better Off Alone? Women's Economic Activities, Cooperative Work, and Employment in Rural Paraguay

Development organizations are emphasizing the use of womens groups to improve socioeconomic welfare and empower women at the household and community levels. This study looks at income-generating activities (IGAs) of women in a small rural community in eastern Paraguay, their contribution to family welfare, and womens involvement in community management. Economically active women in the study community had decision-making power within the household, but were not actively involved in community management. Further, the women preferred to work independently and not with others. There was a near universal preference for the use of particular IGAs, but personal and family circumstances affected production methods and yields. These preferences - along with negative experiences with previous group projects, a desire to work autonomously, socioeconomic differences, and attitudes of distrust among the women - affect womens willingness to participate in cooperative projects and community management. Recognition of differences in social stratification among women and their socioeconomic circumstances is crucial to developing projects that complement individual needs and capabilities as well as facilitate involvement and leadership of females in community affairs.