Joachim H. von Elbe

Identification of betanin degradation products

ZusammenfassungBetanin-Lösungen wurden beim Erhitzen zu Betalaminsäure und 6-Hydroindol-2-carbonsäure-5-O-glykosid hydrolysiert. Die Reaktion wurde mit analytischer Hochdruckflüssigkeits-Chro-matographie (HPLC) überwacht. Die Produkte wurden durch präparative Phasenumkehr-HPLC oder Anionen-Austauscher-Sdulenchromatographie isoliert. Zum Nachweis der Abbauprodukte wurden Derivate der Betalaminsäure (Anilid, Semicarbazon, Kondensation Mitl-Prolin) und Cyclodopa-5-O-glykosid (Hexaacetat) hergestellt. Die Bildung eines decarboxylierten Betanins wurde auf Grund des gebildeten CO2, der chromatographischen Eigenschaften und der Lichtabsorption des decarboxylierten Produktes vorgeschlagen.SummaryBetanin in solution, upon heating, was found to hydrolyze to betalamic acid and cyclodopa-5-O-glycoside. This reaction was monitored by an analytical high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method. The products were isolated by preparative reversed-phase HPLC or column chromatography using anion-exchange resins. Derivatives of betalamic acid (anilide, semicarbazone, condensation withl-proline) and cyclodopa-5-O-glycoside (hexaacetate) were prepared as evidence to support the identification of these decomposition compounds. Formation of decarboxylated betanin was proposed based on the identification of CO2, chromatographic properties and the light absorption characteristics of the decarboxylated product.

Oxygen involvement in betanin degradation. Oxygen uptake and influence of metal ions

ZusammenfassungDie Aufnahme gelösten Sauerstoffs durch Betanin wurde gemessen, um die Rolle des Sauerstoffs beim Abbau eines Pigments besser zu verstehen. Messungen des gleichzeitigen Verschwindens von Betanin und Sauerstoff aus Lösungen weisen auf eine Reaktionskinetik 2. Ordnung. Die Sauerstoff-Aufnahme war pH-abhängig und nahm über und unter dem pH-Bereich, in dem Betanin am stabilsten ist (pH 4,0–6,0), zu. Durch zugefügte Cu(II)-Ionen stieg die Aufnahme ebenfalls an.Der Einfluß von Cu(II)-, Fe(II)- und Fe(III)-Ionen auf die Abbaurate des Betanin wurde im Konzentrationsbereich 0,05 mm–1,0 mm geprüft. Bei gleicher Konzentration war die Wirkung von Cu(II) am stärksten und von Fe(III) am schwächsten. Ansteigende Gehalte von Cu(II)-Ionen führten zu einem rascheren Betanin-Abbau, bis etwa eine Konzentration von 0,1 mm erreicht war. In Gegenwart von Cu(II)-, Cu(I)- und Hg(II)-Ionen änderte sich die Farbe von Betaninlösungen spontan, was auf die Bildung von Metall-Pigment-Komplexen hindeutet. Diese Spektrumsveränderungen konnten durch Zugabe von Säuren oder von EDTA rückgängig gemacht werden.SummaryThe uptake of dissolved oxygen by betanin was measured to better understand the role of oxygen in the degradation of this pigment. Measurements of the simultaneous disappearance of betanin and oxygen from solution suggested over all second-order reactions kinetics. The uptake of oxygen was pH-dependent, with increased uptake occurring above and below the pH range in which betanin is most stable (pH 4.0–6.0). The addition of cupric ion increased the uptake.Copper(II), iron(II), and iron(III) ions in the concentration range 0.05–1.0 mM were evaluated for their effects on the rate of betanin degradation. At a given concentration, cupric ions had the greatest influence and ferric ions the least. Increasing levels of cupric ions caused a rapid increase in the rate of betanin loss until a plateau in the rate was reached at a concentration of approximately 0.1 mM. In the presence of cupric, cuprous, and mercuric ions, the colour of betanin solutions instantly changed, suggesting the formation of metal-pigment complexes. These spectral changes could be reversed by acidification and/or the addition of EDTA.

Absence of Mutagenic Activity and a Short-Term Toxicity Study of Beet Pigments as Food Colorants

Beet colorant was tested for mutagenic activity in five S. typhimurium strains. The absence of mutagenic activity was found with or without S-9 rat liver fractions.Groups of six rats were fed red beet colorant preparations containing 2,000 ppm betalains in the diet for 7 days. No significant differences were noted in body weight gains, feed consumption, or gross pathological alterations compared to the controls.These preliminary toxicological results indicate the potential usage of betalain pigments as a food colorant, but further long term investigations are warranted.

Jellies, Gummies and Licorices

Gummies and jellies are a class of confections based on a hydrocolloid (sometimes called a stabilizer) that provides a network to hold relatively high moisture content sugar syrup. Licorices and licorice-like products mainly use flour as their source of stabilizer and for this chapter flour will be used in the same context as a hydrocolloid. The hydrocolloid gel also influences appearance, flavor release, and textural attributes. Traditionally, the term gummy (sometimes written as gummi) is reserved for candies made with gelatin, although this practice is not strictly followed around the world. Candies made with other hydrocolloids are generally called jellies. The most common hydrocolloids are gelatin, starch, and pectin. Each hydrocolloid imparts its own unique texture and organoleptic properties to the candy. Other hydrocolloids (such as agar, gum arabic, carrageenan, etc.) are often used in mixtures with other hydrocolloids to impart new characteristics and textures. Table 12.1 provides a comparison of various attributes of gummy and jelly candies based on different stabilizers.

Fats, Oils and Emulsifiers

Various definitions have been offered to define lipids, although the terms fat, oil and lipid are often used interchangeably in the food industry to denote a certain type of molecular structure. In general, lipids are molecules that contain a significant proportion of aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbons. Lipids may also be defined as the various soft or semi-solid organic compounds comprising the glyceride esters of fatty acids and associated compounds such as hydrocarbons or substituted hydrocarbons (fatty acids, waxes, soaps, detergents, emulsifiers), acylglycerol s (mono-, di- and triacylglycerols), glycerophospholipids (e.g., lecithin), sterols (e.g., cholesterol), and oil-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K).

Compressed Tablets and Lozenges

The pharmaceutical industry first produced lozenges and compressed tablets in the mid to late nineteenth century as a way to deliver a specific amount of a drug. Because drug quantities are often measured in milligrams or less, another powder was needed to provide the necessary bulk as a carrier of the active ingredient. The properties of this other (nonactive) powder define tableting ability in pharmaceutical applications.

Chemistry of Bulk Sweeteners

Sweeteners are the primary ingredients in the manufacture of confections. Chemically, the primary sweeteners in confections are carbohydrates, which consist of a group of widely varied chemical substances present in both plants and animals. For example, in dry corn, approximately 55% of the solids are carbohydrates. The word “carbohydrates” itself means hydrated carbon. Thus, carbohydrate chemistry mostly deals with chains of carbon atoms hydrated with water, with a general formula of Cx(H2O)y.

Physico-chemical Properties of Sweeteners in Confections

Sugars and other sweeteners are often the main components of a confection. Besides making them sweet, they also provide bulk to the candy. However, the physico-chemical properties of the sweeteners do more than just provide bulk. The physical characteristics of a candy, which include consistency, chewy or stretchy characteristics, melt-in-the-mouth behavior, flavor release, and many other properties, are dependent on the nature of the sweetener. For example, sucrose by itself can be turned into candies with completely different characteristics – rock candy and cotton candy – simply by how it is processed. Rock candy, a crystalline form of sucrose, has very little color or flavor and takes a long time to dissolve in the mouth. Cotton candy, on the other hand, is a glassy form of sucrose that has colors and flavors distributed throughout the candy and dissolves almost instantaneously when placed in the mouth. To make high quality candies, it is important that the confectioner understand the properties of sugars that lead to these completely different characteristics.

Sugar and Sugar-Free Panned Confections

Sugar-panned candies may be broadly defined as candies where a sugar shell has been applied to a center (sometimes called comfit or dragees) through sequential addition of syrup as the piece is tumbling in a revolving pan. Sugar shells may have either a hard, brittle texture (hard panning) or a soft, easily broken texture (soft panning), with the shell characteristics related to the syrup composition and the nature of sugar crystallization as the shell material is applied. Although the term sugar is often used here, sugar-free components are also panned as well. Specific details related to sugar-free applications are noted as pertinent. A third type of panning involves application of a chocolate coating; chocolate panning is covered in Chapter 17. Preparation of centers is generally described in the chapters related to that particular candy category (e.g., jelly candies for jelly bean centers).

Chewing and Bubble Gum

Over the years, man has chewed various things for health and pleasure. In ancient Greece, people chewed resin of the mastic tree. This mastiche, as the product was called, was thought to help clean teeth and freshen breath. In the Americas, the native North Americans chewed tree sap and the Mayan Indians chewed chicle, the sap (or latex) from the sapodilla tree, which grows in Central America. This predilection of early man for putting things in the mouth and chewing it has led to the one of the largest categories of confectionery products – gum .