Joan G. DeJaeghere

Assessing intercultural sensitivity: An empirical analysis of the Hammer and Bennett Intercultural Development Inventory

Abstract This article reports the results of the authors’ psychometric analysis of the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) (The intercultural development inventory manual. Intercultural Communication Institute, Portland, OR, 1998). The study had two major research objectives: to examine the empirical properties of the IDI and to generate a single, composite IDI score that could be used for research and training (participant profiling/diagnostic) purposes. In May, 1998 and January, 1999, the IDI was administered to 378 high school students, college students, and instructors in foreign language, language and culture, and intercultural education courses. IDI data from the final sample of 353 were analyzed using a standard set of psychometric procedures including factor analysis, reliability and validity testing, and social desirability analysis. The results demonstrate that the IDI is a reliable measure that has little or no social desirability bias and reasonably, although not exactly, approximates the developmental model of intercultural sensitivity (Towards ethnorelativism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In: R. M. Paige (Ed.), Cross-cultural orientation: New conceptualizations and applications, University Press of America, New York, 1986, pp. 27–69; Towards ethnorelativism: a developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In: R. M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience, Intercultural Press, Yarmouth, ME, 1993, pp. 21–71) upon which it is based. The study also produced a weighted mean composite measure, the IDI developmental score, which should be of particular value for profiling and diagnosis.

Development of intercultural competence among US American teachers: professional development factors that enhance competence

The increasing diversity of the student age population in the USA calls for increased cultural competence on behalf of educators to effectively teach students. This article reports on a study of a suburban school district’s initiatives that utilized the Development Model of Intercultural Sensitivity, the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) as a baseline measurement tool, and subsequent professional development for teachers, to promote the development of intercultural competence. ANOVA and regression analysis models were used to determine the variables that affect teachers’ perceived intercultural competence after their participation in professional development.

What Matters for Marginalized Girls and Boys in Bangladesh: A Capabilities Approach for Understanding Educational Well-Being and Empowerment

Ensuring the education of marginalized children has become an important agenda in order to reach the goals of universal primary education and gender equality. Education policies and projects aiming to target marginalized children often do so on the basis of demographic variables, such as sex, ethnicity, poverty and geography. We argue that this approach to defining marginality does not sufficiently address underlying discriminatory conditions and norms that perpetuate inequalities. In this article, we employed a capabilities approach as an analytical frame to understand what girls and boys in a rural district in Bangladesh reason affects their educational well-being and empowerment. We draw on critical feminist perspectives of empowerment to illustrate how gendered inequalities are perpetuated in the structures and norms in communities and schools. We argue that specific conditions can differentially marginalize or empower, and these conditions have persistent gendered patterns. Conditions of a safe, supportive, and quality educational environment foster possibilities for empowerment and well-being, and conversely, a lack of these conditions can marginalize children from achieving well-being through education.

Entrepreneurship education for youth in sub-Saharan Africa: A capabilities approach as an alternative framework to neoliberalism's individualizing risks

Entrepreneurship education is widely promoted as an approach to addressing youth unemployment. Contrasting neoliberal and human capabilities frameworks, this article draws attention to the problematic way in which much of the discourse surrounding entrepreneurship conflates programmes designed to spur economic development through business and job creation with those designed to alleviate poverty. Providing examples from the case of one NGO implementing a youth livelihood programme in sub-Saharan Africa, the authors discuss how a capabilities approach illuminates the importance of attending to youth values and addressing the social, material and institutional conditions that mediate how youths’ skills and resources are transformed into livelihood opportunities and choices.

Increasing the supply of secondary teachers in sub‐Saharan Africa: a stakeholder assessment of policy options in six countries

Over the next decade many countries of sub‐Saharan Africa will face a demand for qualified secondary school teachers that current systems for teacher recruitment, training, deployment and retention will be unable to meet. While strategies for increasing teacher supply to meet this shortage have been suggested, less attention has been given to investigating the acceptability of these potential solutions by those educators closest to the school and classroom level and who often serve as gatekeepers to policy implementation. Kingdon’s multiple streams model is the framework used in this study to assess the feasibility of key strategies widely offered as possible solutions to resolve the projected teacher shortage. This study investigated the responses of 114 secondary school teachers, headteachers and education officials across six countries to policy options for increasing teacher supply. While none of the groups supported options to increase the supply through changed teacher training, there was support among all three groups for options that affected retention, including increased in‐service training and distance education, more mentorship for new teachers and more opportunities for teachers to network with each other. These findings suggest that policy‐makers in sub‐Saharan African countries need to build political support among education stakeholders to find the most feasible and viable solutions to address the large teacher shortages through both increasing supply and retention.

Citizenship as Privilege and Power: Australian Educators’ Lived Experiences as Citizens

Citizenship and citizenship education have been topics of considerable debate in many countries over the past 2 decades in both public and academic discourses. Scholars have raised concerns that increasing diversity in multicultural societies and globalization challenge current conceptualizations and practices of citizenship. Policy makers and the public in the United States and in many other countries, such as Australia, are debating the rights of citizens and the changing nature of the polity due to increasing immigration. The scholarly and public debates are an attempt to reconceptualize citizenship and citizenship education to address these concerns. This article contributes to this debate by describing how educators, as mediators of constructions of citizenship in the education system and specifically in the classroom (Schugurensky 2002), perceive their lived experiences as citizens in an era of globalization. The current literature and research on citizenship and citizenship education have taken several approaches. Scholars in the fields of political science, sociology, feminist studies, and critical theory provide theoretical critiques of assumptions, such as equality and inclusion, underlying citizenship and citizenship education. Scholars have argued that the rights and status of citizens in liberal democracies are not always equally granted to all members of society and that education plays a role in promoting equal rights at the individual and community levels. Educators have also critiqued conceptualizations of citizenship, claiming that citizenship education must address diversity and globalization. There is a renewed call for a critical citizenship that emphasizes social justice, human rights, and equality. Educational re-

Gender Mainstreaming in Education at the Level of Field Operations: The Case of CARE USA's Indicator Framework.

Following the adoption of gender mainstreaming at the Beijing Conference for Women in 1995 as a major strategy to promote gender equality and the recognition of gender analysis as central to this process, Gender and Development (GAD) frameworks have provided tools for gender analysis in various sectors. Gender mainstreaming in basic education has received limited attention to date, however, especially in development agencies at the level of operations (i.e., field offices in partnership with the community, school, and classroom). We contend that gender analysis in education – especially at the level of operations for development agencies – could be enhanced through the use of robust education and gender (EDGE) analysis frameworks that integrate dimensions of educational quality and attainment with equality and empowerment. We explore this idea by examining CARE USA’s comprehensive Common Indicator Framework (CIF) that integrates these four areas and was designed for use in the basic education sector. We review and compare the findings from the initial use of the CIF to guide data collection for a situation analysis in two countries, Mali and Cambodia, and we critique both how it is contributing to gender mainstreaming at the level of operations and ways in which it needs to be refined.

Girls’ educational aspirations and agency: imagining alternative futures through schooling in a low-resourced Tanzanian community

ABSTRACT The chance of a secondary education for young girls who might have otherwise been among many out-of-school youth cultivates aspirations for their future. While aspirations to be educated expand the possibilities of opportunities, they also go unfulfilled in an environment of low achievement rates, high unemployment and constraining gender norms that can leave many secondary graduates disempowered. This study examines how aspirations, agency and future well-being are linked through 4 years of longitudinal data from interviews with girls in a technical and vocational school in rural Tanzania. Conceptually, the paper puts forward a framework within a capability approach to consider how aspirations and agency are oriented toward valued well-being. It also draws inspiration from Appadurai’s use of aspirations as a cultural concept that is future and change oriented and socially embedded. Finally, the body of scholarship that frames Bourdieu’s notion of agency as productive is drawn upon to illuminate whether and how girls are agentic in acting toward their aspirations. Bringing these conceptualizations together, the empirical analysis shows how aspirations and agency are dialectically related and socially situated, allowing for openings in agency to occur even when faced with gendered constraints to aspirations.

Education, Skills and Citizenship: An Emergent Model for Entrepreneurship in Tanzania.

Educating for citizenship is most often associated with a discourse of liberalism in which knowledge, skills and values of equality, rights, justice and national identity are taught. A competing neoliberal discourse with values of self-improvement, responsibility and entrepreneurialism is now quite pervasive in educational policies and practices, shifting goals and processes of education for citizenship. In Tanzania, neoliberalisms influence is evident in the private provision of schooling and pedagogy and curriculum oriented toward skills development. Neoliberal policies have created an opening for non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to fill a need by providing secondary education as well as technical and entrepreneurial skills in efforts to make graduates more employable. This paper examines how an NGO entrepreneurship education programme integrated into formal secondary education in Tanzania articulates new goals and values of citizenship. In this model, learning is tied to markets; becoming a successful citizen includes acquiring business skills; and citizenship values include economic sustainability and self-reliance. This model of entrepreneurship education produces a paradox in educational goals for citizenship in that it aims to secure rights to education and provide for material needs while it also subjects young people and schools to economic and social risks tied to flexible and unstable markets.

Public Debate and Dialogue from a Capabilities Approach: Can it Foster Gender Justice in Education?

State institutions and transnational civil society organizations play an important role in constructing the public discourses and undertaking interventions related to gender equality and education. However, interventions often directed at girls and institutional approaches aimed at securing rights to education have been limited in transforming gender injustices in other societal spaces. The capabilities approach, and particularly the concepts of public debate and dialogue, offers another approach to engage top-down institutional approaches and bottom-up initiatives in the work toward gender justice. This paper provides an analysis of how actors in an international NGOs gender and education program engage in public debate and dialogue. I draw on feminist scholars’ concepts of voice and recognition, the public sphere and ‘rational’ debate, and solidarities among transnational actors to extend how public debate and dialogue can be enacted by NGO actors to transform gender inequalities. This analysis also reveals the challenges and limits of engaging in public debate and dialogue to foster gender justice.