Joe Barcroft

Semantic and Structural Elaboration in L2 Lexical Acquisition

This study examined the effects of semantic and structural elaboration on second language (L2) lexical acquisition. English-speaking low-intermediate L2 Spanish learners attempted to learn 24 new Spanish words in three conditions: (a) make pleasantness ratings about each word referent based on previous experiences (+semantic); (b) count letters in each word (+structural); and (c) “do your best” only (no elaboration). Dependent variables were free recall of the target words in Spanish, free recall of the target words in English, and cued recall (generate Spanish words when presented with pictures). Results indicated higher Spanish free recall for +structural than for +semantic; higher English free recall for +semantic than for +structural; higher overall recall for no elaboration than for +semantic and +structural; and higher cued recall for control than for +semantic and +structural. The results provide evidence that increased semantic processing can inhibit ones ability to encode the formal properties of new words.

EFFECTS OF ACOUSTIC VARIABILITY ON SECOND LANGUAGE VOCABULARY LEARNING

This study examined the effects of acoustic variability on second language vocabulary learning. English native speakers learned new words in Spanish. Exposure frequency to the words was constant. Dependent measures were accuracy and latency of picture-to-Spanish and Spanish-to-English recall. Experiment 1 compared presentation formats of neutral (conversational) voice only, three voice types, and six voice types. No significant differences emerged. Experiment 2 compared presentation formats of one speaker, three speakers, and six speakers. Vocabulary learning was superior in the higher-variability conditions. Experiment 3 partially replicated Experiment 1 while rotating voice types across subjects in moderate and no-variability conditions. Vocabulary learning was superior in the higher variability conditions. These results are consistent with an exemplar-based theory of initial lexical learning and representation. Portions of these data were presented at the 143rd meeting of the Acoustical Society of America in Cancun, Mexico and at the Fourth International Conference on the Mental Lexicon in Windsor, Canada. The authors would like to thank Paola Rijos for help in data collection and scoring and the anonymous SSLA reviewers.

Effects of Sentence Writing in Second Language Lexical Acquisition.

This study compared the effects of writing new words in sentences with word picture repetition learning alone. Second language (L2) Spanish learners attempted to learn 24 new Spanish words in one of two conditions while viewing word picture pairs. In Experiment 1, in the no sentence writing condition, the participants viewed 4 repetitions of each word for 6 seconds each. In the sentence writing condition, they viewed 1 repetition of each word for 48 seconds and were asked to write the word in a Spanish sentence. In Experiment 2, the participants were shown one repetition of each word for 24 seconds in both the sentence writing and no sentence writing conditions. Immediate and delayed posttests on productive vocabulary knowledge were administered in both experiments. Scores were submitted to analyses of variance. Condition and time were independent variables. Target word production was scored based on syllables and whole words produced. Results of both experiments indicated strong negative effects for the sentence writing conditions, suggesting that sentence writing can inhibit word form learning during the initial stages of L2 lexical acquisition.

Strategies and performance in intentional L2 vocabulary learning

This study was designed to identify strategies used during intentional vocabulary learning and to assess the relationship between strategy use and vocabulary learning performance. English-speaking students of Spanish studied new Spanish words while viewing word-picture pairs. The participants then completed posttests and answered questions about their strategy use. Their responses were coded to identify each participants most frequently used strategy (MFS). Frequency of use of each MFS was determined. A subset of posttest scores were submitted to an analysis of variance with MFS as a between-subjects independent variable, recall type as a within-subjects independent variable, and score as the dependent variable. The results indicated significantly better scores for mnemonic technique and L2–picture association over L2–L1 translation and repetition. A significant positive correlation was also observed between the number of strategies used and vocabulary recall. Theoretical and pedagogical implications of the study are discussed. Sample activities for raising awareness about L2 vocabulary learning strategies and effective strategy use are also provided in the Appendix.

Stimulus variability and the phonetic relevance hypothesis: Effects of variability in speaking style, fundamental frequency, and speaking rate on spoken word identification

Three experiments were conducted to examine the effects of trial-to-trial variations in speaking style, fundamental frequency, and speaking rate on identification of spoken words. In addition, the experiments investigated whether any effects of stimulus variability would be modulated by phonetic confusability (i.e., lexical difficulty). In Experiment 1, trial-to-trial variations in speaking style reduced the overall identification performance compared with conditions containing no speaking-style variability. In addition, the effects of variability were greater for phonetically confusable words than for phonetically distinct words. In Experiment 2, variations in fundamental frequency were found to have no significant effects on spoken word identification and did not interact with lexical difficulty. In Experiment 3, two different methods for varying speaking rate were found to have equivalent negative effects on spoken word recognition and similar interactions with lexical difficulty. Overall, the findings are consistent with a phonetic-relevance hypothesis, in which accommodating sources of acoustic-phonetic variability that affect phonetically relevant properties of speech signals can impair spoken word identification. In contrast, variability in parameters of the speech signal that do not affect phonetically relevant properties are not expected to affect overall identification performance. Implications of these findings for the nature and development of lexical representations are discussed.

Can Writing a New Word Detract from Learning It? More Negative Effects of Forced Output during Vocabulary Learning.

This study examined effects of word writing on second language vocabulary learning. In two experiments, English-speaking learners of Spanish attempted to learn 24 Spanish nouns while viewing word–picture pairs. The participants copied 12 target words and wrote nothing for the other 12 target words being studied. Productive vocabulary learning on immediate and delayed (2 days later) measures was higher in the no-writing condition. These findings suggest that this type of forced output without access to meaning can detract from word learning by exhausting processing resources needed to encode novel lexical forms.

Effects of Questions about Word Meaning during L2 Spanish Lexical Learning

This study concerned the effects of questions about word meaning during an immediate lexical learning task. English-speaking learners of Spanish as a second language (L2) attempted to learn 24 new Spanish words while viewing word-picture pairs. For 12 of the words, they thought about specific questions related to the meaning of each target word (e.g., In what ways can this object be used?). For the other 12 words, they were instructed only to do their best to learn the target words. After the learning phase, the participants completed three recall tasks: (a) free recall in Spanish, (b) free recall in English, and (c) cued recall in Spanish (when presented with pictures only). The results indicated significantly greater cued-recall scores in the no questions condition than in the questions condition, a finding that provided evidence for a potentially inhibitory effect of semantic elaboration during L2 word learning.

An integrated account of the effects of acoustic variability in first language and second language: Evidence from amplitude, fundamental frequency, and speaking rate variability

This study examined how three different sources of stimulus variability—overall amplitude, fundamental frequency, and speaking rate—affect second language (L2) vocabulary learning. Native English speakers learned Spanish words in presentation formats with no variability, moderate variability, and high variability. Dependent measures were accuracy and latency of picture-to-Spanish and Spanish-to-English recall. The findings indicated that variability sources that do not affect first language (L1) word identification (amplitude, fundamental frequency) do not affect L2 vocabulary learning. Conversely, variability in speaking rate, which negatively affects L1 word identification, positively affected L2 vocabulary learning. These findings are consistent with an integrated account in which sources of variability that affect phonetically relevant properties of speech impede L1 speech processing but improve L2 vocabulary learning.

Tailoring auditory training to patient needs with single and multiple talkers: transfer-appropriate gains on a four-choice discrimination test.

Abstract Objective: Our long-term objective is to develop an auditory training program that will enhance speech recognition in those situations where patients most want improvement. As a first step, the current investigation trained participants using either a single talker or multiple talkers to determine if auditory training leads to transfer-appropriate gains. Design: The experiment implemented a 2 × 2 × 2 mixed design, with training condition as a between-participants variable and testing interval and test version as repeated-measures variables. Participants completed a computerized six-week auditory training program wherein they heard either the speech of a single talker or the speech of six talkers. Training gains were assessed with single-talker and multi-talker versions of the Four-choice discrimination test. Participants in both groups were tested on both versions. Study sample: Sixty-nine adult hearing-aid users were randomly assigned to either single-talker or multi-talker auditory training. Results: Both groups showed significant gains on both test versions. Participants who trained with multiple talkers showed greater improvement on the multi-talker version whereas participants who trained with a single talker showed greater improvement on the single-talker version. Conclusion: Transfer-appropriate gains occurred following auditory training, suggesting that auditory training can be designed to target specific patient needs. Sumario Objetivo: Nuestro objetivo a largo plazo es desarrollar un programa de entrenamiento auditivo que mejore el reconocimiento del lenguaje en aquellas situaciones en las que los pacientes lo requieran más. Como un primer paso, la investigación actual entrenó a los participantes utilizando un solo hablante o múltiples hablantes para determinar si el entrenamiento auditivo logra transferir una ganancia apropiada. Diseño: En el experimento se implementó un dise o mixto 2 × 2 × 2 con las condiciones de entrenamiento como una variable entre los participantes, y los intervalos de evaluación y la versión de la prueba como variables de medidas repetidas. Los participantes completaron un programa de entrenamiento auditivo computarizado de seis semanas en donde oían el discurso de un solo hablante o de seis hablantes. La ganancia lograda por el entrenamiento fue evaluada por medio de la prueba de discriminación de cuatro opciones en la versión de uno y de seis hablantes. Los participantes en ambos grupos fueron evaluados con ambas versiones. Muestra: Sesenta y nueve adultos usuarios de auxiliar auditivo fueron asignados al azar para recibir entrenamiento con uno o con seis hablantes. Resultados: Ambos grupos mostraron una ganancia significativa en ambas versiones de la prueba. Los participantes que se entrenaron con múltiples hablantes mostraron una mayor mejoría en la versión multi-hablantes mientras que los participantes entrenados con un solo hablante mostraron una mejoría mayor en la versión de un solo hablante. Conclusiones: La ganancia correspondiente a la transferencia apropiada ocurrió después del entrenamiento auditivo, lo que sugiere que el entrenamiento auditivo puede ser diseñado para necesidades específicas de los pacientes.

Using Patient Perceptions of Relative Benefit and Enjoyment to Assess Auditory Training

BACKGROUND Patients seeking treatment for hearing-related communication difficulties are often disappointed with the eventual outcomes, even after they receive a hearing aid or a cochlear implant. One approach that audiologists have used to improve communication outcomes is to provide auditory training (AT), but compliance rates for completing AT programs are notoriously low. PURPOSE The primary purpose of the investigation was to conduct a patient-based evaluation of the benefits of an AT program, I Hear What You Mean, in order to determine how the AT experience might be improved. A secondary purpose was to examine whether patient perceptions of the AT experience varied depending on whether they were trained with a single talkers voice or heard training materials from multiple talkers. RESEARCH DESIGN Participants completed a 6 wk auditory training program and were asked to respond to a posttraining questionnaire. Half of the participants heard the training materials spoken by six different talkers, and half heard the materials produced by only one of the six talkers. STUDY SAMPLE Participants included 78 adult hearing-aid users and 15 cochlear-implant users for a total of 93 participants who completed the study, ages 18 to 89 yr (M = 66 yr, SD = 16.67 yr). Forty-three females and 50 males participated. The mean better ear pure-tone average for the participants was 56 dB HL (SD = 25 dB). INTERVENTION Participants completed the single- or multiple-talker version of the 6 wk computerized AT program, I Hear What You Mean, followed by completion of a posttraining questionnaire in order to rate the benefits of overall training and the training activities and to describe what they liked best and what they liked least. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS After completing a 6 wk computerized AT program, participants completed a posttraining questionnaire. Seven-point Likert scaled responses to whether understanding spoken language had improved were converted to individualized z scores and analyzed for changes due to AT. Written responses were coded and categorized to consider both positive and negative subjective opinions of the AT program. Regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between perceived effort and perceived benefit and to identify factors that predict overall program enjoyment. RESULTS Participants reported improvements in their abilities to recognize spoken language and in their self-confidence as a result of participating in AT. Few differences were observed between reports from those trained with one versus six different talkers. Correlations between perceived benefit and enjoyment were not significant, and only participant age added unique variance to predicting program enjoyment. CONCLUSIONS Participants perceived AT to be beneficial. Perceived benefit did not correlate with perceived enjoyment. Compliance with computerized AT programs might be enhanced if patients have regular contact with a hearing professional and train with meaning-based materials. An unheralded benefit of AT may be an increased sense of control over the hearing loss. In future efforts, we might aim to make training more engaging and entertaining, and less tedious.