Joel T. Heinen

Resources use, conservation attitudes, management intervention and park-people relations in the Western Terai landscape of Nepal

Various conservation models have been implemented in Nepal since 1973, however their impacts on resources use and conservation attitudes are scarcely known. To address the hypothesis that conservation attitudes should improve around protected areas (PAs) with more social and economic interventions, stratified random questionnaire surveys of 234 households were conducted in two PAs in the Western Terai of Nepal: Bardia National Park (BNP), in which interventions have been more widespread for longer time periods, and Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve (SWR), in which interventions are relatively recent. Both are part of a major landscape-level conservation programme under implementation in Nepal, and both are under threat of political turmoil, uncontrolled immigration, inefficient land reform policies and unsustainable resource use. There was spatio-temporal variability in resource use patterns and dependence. People collected eight and seven types of resources in BNP and SWR, respectively, and people in BNP were more dependent on resources overall. About 72% of respondents mentioned the problem of inadequate firewood, and suggested the promotion of alternative energy and permission to collect from PAs as mitigating strategies. Of 11 attitude statements, five significantly differed between the two areas. Respondents from the BNP had more favourable attitudes about conservation than those from SWR, supporting the main hypothesis. Training received by respondents, damage by wildlife, dependence on resources and satisfaction towards user groups contributed significantly to the variation in conservation attitudes. The results suggest that the liberalization of PA management has enabled the use of resources, improved livelihoods to some extent and solicited more favourable conservation attitudes in Nepal.

Emerging issues in legal and procedural aspects of buffer zone management with case studies from Nepal.

Buffer zones have been used as part of larger integrated conservation development programs to provide the benefits of ecological buffering of protected areas and socioeconomic buffering of neighboring communities. The authors explore the legal and managerial development of buffer zones internationally and with the passage of a conservation amendment in Nepal. A review of Nepals buffer zone policies and several ongoing projects shows that there are several potential inherent problems. As written, regulations tend to expand the authority of the state by imposing restrictions in populated areas formerly not under control of park officials. Some participatory rights are provided to citizens, but management authority largely remains top down from the standpoint of local users. The authors question whether the managerial and research capacities exist to monitor buffer zones for their effectiveness for both conservation and development purposes and make several recommendations to improve implementation.

Wetland resource use and conservation attitudes among indigenous and migrant peoples in Ghodaghodi Lake area, Nepal.

Nepal has a number of wetlands in the lowland region of the country along the southern Indo-Nepalese border that have experienced great pressures from growing human populations due in part to migration of people from the mountains. A questionnaire survey and informal interviews with key informants in 1998 were used to explore the socio-economic status of indigenous and non-indigenous inhabitants, use patterns of forest and wetland resources and attitudes about conservation in Ghodaghodi Lake, a proposed Ramsar site, in the lowlands of western Nepal. Tharus, indigenous to the region, represented 33% of the population; the rest were migrants from the mountains. Tharus had lower literacy rates, larger landholdings and kept different livestock species. Most Tharu families were dependent on extraction from wetlands; all groups used forests for fuelwood but mountain settlers used forests for fodder more than did Tharus. Most respondents expressed willingness to participate in the conservation of Ghodaghodi Lake; however, only 12%, mostly mountain settlers, had ever participated in formal conservation activities. Conservation attitudes were strongly influenced by educational level and resource use. Educated males of higher caste and mountain origin who had previously participated in formal management activities were more positive towards conservation than other groups. There is a need to implement a participatory integrated management plan, to include community development, education and off-farm income generation, to assure participation of Tharus and lower caste households of mountain origin in the conservation and management of wetlands and forests in the area.

Integrated conservation and development project life cycles in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal: Is development overpowering conservation?

The merits of integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs), which aim to provide development incentives to citizens in return for conservation behaviors, have long been debated in the literature. Some of the most common critiques suggest that conservation activities tend to be strongly overpowered by development activities. We studied this assertion through participant observation and archival analysis of five Conservation Area Management Committees (CAMCs) in the Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA), Nepal. Committee activities were categorized as conservation activities (policy development and conservation implementation), development activities (infrastructure, health care, education, economic development, and sanitation), or activities related to institutional strengthening (administrative development and capacity building activities). Greater longevity of each ICDP was associated with greater conservation activity in relation to development activities. Project life cycles progressed from a focus on development activities in their early stages, through a transitional period of institutional strengthening, and toward a longer-term focus that roughly balanced conservation and development activities. Results suggest that the ICDP concept, as practiced in ACA, has been successful at building capacity for and interest in conservation amongst local communities. However, success has come over a period of nearly a decade, suggesting that prior conclusions about ICDP failures may have been based on unrealistic expectations of the time needed to influence behavioral changes in target populations.

The Maoist people's war and conservation in Nepal

Abstract Civil wars are frequent in lesser-developed nations, wherein is harbored a disproportionate share of the worlds biodiversity. These wars have had serious detrimental effects, direct and indirect, on conservation programs. From 2001 to 2005, we conducted site visits, personal interviews, and document searches bearing upon this problem as exemplified by Nepals ongoing Maoist insurgency. Cases of insurgents usurping full control of several protected areas have come to light, as has a rapid increase in poaching and illicit wildlife trade nation-wide. Staff and infrastructure of conservation agencies and non-governmental organizations have been attacked. The Nepalese situation invites reassessment of traditional “fortresses-and-fines” conservation strategies as well as more modern “community-based” approaches that require local governmental offices to remain functional. Also called into question is the role of military force in the protection of parks and reserves. In times of civil strife, we conclude, robust conservation may most likely be achieved by nongovernmental organizations that are politically neutral and financially independent.

Population, resources, and environment: Implications of human behavioral ecology for conservation

Current attempts to solve the multitude of environmental problems have had only minimal effects clearly indicating that a new paradigm is needed. 2 human behaviorists from the University of Michigan propose a behavioral ecological approach which asserts the humans have evolved to obtain resources to survive and reproduce (i.e. short-term goals) an that the individual and family welfare and not the welfare of the group have always been important. Human like other living organisms while competing with each other have evolved to use resources effectively but our ingenuity allowed us to develop a new evolutionary circumstances-- technology. The combination of evolved behaviors and this new state may destroy us. Over the last 20 years the most successful conservation efforts have been those that incorporate an individual cost-benefit leverage while the least successful efforts have been those based just on information. Reciprocity is a powerful force that should be considered when encouraging extension of the meaning of family or shared interest in real ways to benefit conservation programs. A key strategy to solving conservation problems is defining manageable portions of the problems resulting in a series of small successes creation of a sense of control reduction in frustration and anxiety and promotion of continued enthusiasm. Raising children in a conservation ethic may make it easier for them as adults to do slightly costly behaviors which will benefit the group in the long term. We could also promote conservation ethics as a social norm. Information reciprocal interactions and promotion of social norms may be more successful when translated into local scenarios with immediate payoffs. In conclusion think globally act locally.

Emerging, diverging and converging paradigms on sustainable development

SUMMARY Sustainable development has been used in various contexts by theoreticians and practitioners from a number of disciplines. This review explores some of these contexts from basic and applied ecological sciences, social sciences and philosophical works. It is concluded that there is a need to develop a theoretical paradigm that helps to explain the reasons underlying human resource use—a fundamental question that has been ignored in many other studies. A theoretical, evolutionary approach and several premises derived from this approach are offered. The theoretical framework suggests that societal scale, social structure, interrelatedness of individuals, and reciprocal relations between individuals may all be important in determining the types of management programmes that promote sustainable resource use by humans. Examples of solutions to various sustainability issues at different scales, based on different kinds of incentive structures, are also presented.

Parks, people, and conservation: A review of management issues in nepal's protected areas

Human encroachment and many management problems affect Nepals protected areas despite conservation activities governmental support and legal protection. Some problems of the Kosi Tappu Wildlife Reserve in the subtropical Terai region include illegal grazing illegal wood and fodder cutting wildlife mortality from monsoon floods and densely populated boundary areas. 4 small villages exist within the Parsa Wildlife Reserve in the Terai region and illegal timber cutting is common. Chitwan National Park lies within Chitwan District which has the greatest population growth in Nepal (3.5%/year vs. 2.7%/year for the whole country) which has resulted in considerable park/people management problems including rising numbers of tourists. Shivapuri Wildlife Reserve in the middle hills of Nepal houses various watershed projects since it provides most of the drinking water for Kathmandu Valley. The creation of this reserve has curbed overgrazing and deforestation activities. The Makalu-Barun National Park/Conservation Area is uninhabited and 1 of the only unexploited areas in the mountains. Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park has received >10000 foreign tourists and 2500 people (chiefly Sherpa) live in it. This puts much strain on existing forests. A proposal exists for integrated conservation and development including maximum participation and management by the local people for the Annapurna Conservation Area--a highly visited area of Nepal. Overgrazing by domestic stock is a main problem of the Dhor Patan Hunting Reserve. 650 mostly Thakuri residents of 2 villages in Rara National Park were relocated to Barida District in the Terai where many have died. Population pressure from population growth and tourism affect the protected areas of Nepal. Conservation specialists need to develop ways to introduce incentives for local people to diminish park/people conflicts and better conservation strategies.

Conceptual and legal issues in the designation and management of conservation areas in Nepal

The modern era of wildlife and protected area conservation in Nepal began in 1973 with the passage of comprehensive legislation, and has evolved very quickly as new priorities and problems have emerged. Here we explore the legal and managerial development of conservation areas, a recently-defined category of protected area designed to promote conservation through local-level participation and development. A review of the Conservation Area Management Regulations of 1996 shows that there are several potential problems inherent in this designation. As written, the regulations move power from the government to organizations under governmental contract. Thus, management authority largely remains top-down from the standpoint of local users. We also question how well the designation will protect some sensitive wildlife species, since organizations do not have law enforcement authority under Nepalese legislation. Despite these concerns, there have been several successful conservation area programmes in existence in Nepal since the 1980s and most of the issues addressed are surmountable with the current regulations, providing that several criteria are met. We propose that His Majestys Government and organizations under contract develop more definitive methods of disbursing funds for local-level projects, and institute social impact assessments. In addition, more attention must be paid to wildlife law enforcement; independent assessments of important wild populations and unique habitats are needed. Finally, we discuss some broader issues that should be better addressed in Nepal and elsewhere, including cross-sectoral coordination within the government.

Evolving policies for conservation: An Historical Profile of the Protected Area System of Nepal

Abstract Nepal has instituted progressive conservation programmes since the 1970s. This move was in reaction to very rapid rates of land clearance in the lowland areas of the country and an opening up to the world that led to nature-based tourism as a major economic enterprise. Formal conservation began with the passage of national legislation in 1973 offering strong protection for national parks and wildlife reserves, but denied usufruct rights to rural communities. From the late 1970s to the 1990s, the legislation was amended several times. Each case was, in several fundamental ways, a loosening of control by government authorities. Nepal now has buffer zone legislation and allows for the designation of conservation areas in addition to the more-strictly defined categories. Beginning in the 1990s, both government and foreign-backed projects have been implementing landscape level conservation approaches; a number of initiatives in trans-boundary protected area management with India and China have also begun and non-governmental organizations have taken an increasingly active role. This paper considers the expansion of the protected areas network in light of historical, cultural and economic factors and concludes that Nepal has been reactive in adopting conservation programmes. Both outside and inside influences have strongly affected the development of conservation programmes and there are several areas in which more work needs to be done. This includes the need for implementing both national and international conservation law and adopting social and biological monitoring programmes in and around protected areas. In addition, factors outside the control of conservation officials (i.e. a Maoist insurgency) have indirectly hindered conservation programmes in recent years and have greatly complicated prospects for further success.