Johan R Norberg

A contract reconsidered? Changes in the Swedish state’s relation to the sports movement

This article concerns the relation between the state and the sports movement in Sweden. First, a theoretical model is presented for understanding and analysing the relation of the state to voluntarily organized sport. This model takes its starting point in administrative studies and modern political philosophy. Thereafter follows a general description of state support to sports in Sweden in the twentieth century. In this section the concept of an ‘implicit contract’ is used to show how the incompatible interests of the state and the sports movement have been solved in practice within the framework of Swedish welfare politics. The article ends with a discussion on whether current changes in government sport policy may lead to a reconsideration of the implicit contract between the state and the sports movement.

Introduction: sport in Scandinavian societies

Scandinavia consists of the three countries on the Northern peninsula of Europe: Norway, Denmark and Sweden. This issue of Sport in Society includes a selection of articles addressing a set of what we consider actual questions regarding sports and their place in modern Scandinavian societies. Thinking of Scandinavian particularities, many (outside Scandinavia) will probably think of the Scandinavian welfare states, social democratic and state-friendly societies in general. The political organization of the Scandinavian nations and the strong position of public authorities are also important when it comes to sports. Yet, even though there have been public policies towards sports for almost 150 years in Scandinavia, the last decades has witnessed a more politicized field of sports politics. This is, in turn, partly because of shifts within late-modern society – post-industrialization in a wide meaning of the term – and partly because of shifts within sports. Several of the articles to be found in this issue will clearly touch on the question of sport policies and politics. However, other qualities of sports in the Scandinavian nations are probably just as important as closeness to public authorities. Among these other characteristics, we are thinking of the way sports are organized by voluntary organizations, the high level of participation in sports in particular and physical activity in general, sports’ gendered patterns, children’s participation and the way the ever-present challenges of inclusion versus exclusion are handled. Our aim with editing a special issue of Sport in Society on Scandinavian sports is first and foremost to help gain a better understanding of what Scandinavian sports actually look like: to gather and present information and knowledge on the phenomenon of Scandinavian sports. For those interested, both inside and outside Scandinavia, this could be interesting in itself, and the main criteria for selecting articles for this issue has been to provide a broad and characteristic picture of what actually happens. Besides, it was our ambition that most articles should have a double comparative view: taking stock of similarities and differences within Scandinavia, and similarities and differences between Scandinavia and the outer world. This was certainly very ambitious and though all articles are at least to a certain point comparative, some include thorough discussion of all Scandinavians nations, most of the articles concentrate on presenting characteristics of

The governance of sport from a Scandinavian perspective

In the study of The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (1989), the internationally renownedDanish researcher Gösta Esping-Andersen characterizes the Scandinavian countries as examples of a social democratic welfare model. Significant for this model is the ideal of equal social benefits to all citizens and far-reaching state ambitions concerning security and well-being for all members of society. Furthermore, the governments’ relatively high expenditures require a labour market policy prioritizing full employment and high tax revenues (Esping-Andersen 1989, 1996). For sports, this social democratic welfare model has led to substantial state support. However, despite the historical emphasis on state regulations in the Scandinavian countries, the governance of sport has been shaped by a considerable degree of autonomy and self-regulation. In the Scandinavian countries, sports have always had their roots in civil society – organized as a large ‘people’s movement’ on voluntary and idealistic premises. Thus, the states have permitted grants and subsidies but avoided political pressure with regard to regulation and normative development of sport clubs and federations. In this respect, Scandinavian sport has been able to uphold a normative autonomy regarding values, morals and sport policy, at least ideologically. Even if the idea of the idealistic virtue of sport as ‘spiritual fosterage’ and ‘physical education’ should not be taken too far, the ideology of a ‘popular movement’, voluntarism and fosterage plays a vital role. In recent decades many characteristics of the Scandinavian – or social democratic – welfare model have declined. The governance of society has become increasingly differentiated with more individualistic and pragmatic approaches towards welfare and governance. These changes can also be seen in the field of sports. Despite some continuance, the Scandinavian sport model has become gradually more differentiated due to comprehensive societal processes such as professionalization, commercialization and globalization. For instance, club football in Denmark has become highly commercialized, regardless of its history of strong amateurism. Norway is facing a similar development. In Sweden, the commercialization of sport has been held back somewhat by the prevailing ideology of sport as a voluntary movement. In the long run, however, it can be questioned whether this ideology of voluntarism can retain its strong position. The Scandinavian societies and their welfare systems are in transition – and so are sports and the governance of sport. Lately, several journals have published articles concerning sports in Scandinavia. For instance, in 2009, Torbjörn Andersson and Bo Carlsson were the editors of a theme issue in Soccer and Society concerning ‘Football in Scandinavia: A Fusion of Welfare Policy and the Market’. In May 2010 Sport in Society published a theme issue with the title ‘Sport in Scandinavian Societies’ (Ørnulf et al. 2010). In addition, in 2008 an issue on ‘Swedish Physical Education Research’ was published in Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy (Quennerstedt and Öhman 2008). These articles have without doubt shed new insights into sports in the Scandinavian countries. Some articles also deal with questions concerning sport policy and the governance of sport, at least implicitly. Regardless of this, we find the need of a International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics Vol. 3, No. 3, November 2011, 305–309

Football, football pools and the unexpected arrival of sports in Swedish welfare politics.

The aim of the essay is to describe the establishment of football pools in Sweden during the 1920s and 1930s and how this – unexpectedly – contributed to the breakthrough of sports within the framework of Swedish welfare politics. The essay begins with a short historical background. It continues with an account of the illegal pool industry which arose in Sweden in the 1920s followed by the forming of the government‐controlled gambling company Tipstjänst in 1934. After an analysis of the short‐ and long‐term importance of pools to Swedish sports, the effects the development in Sweden had on the sports policies of the other Scandinavian countries will be discussed. The essay concludes with a discussion of the link between the Swedish sports movement and the gambling market in modern times. The fact is that the gambling policy problems current in the inter‐war period have emerged in a new form – with uncertain consequences to Swedish sports’ future economy and relation to the government.

A Methodological Tool for Researching Sport and Social Entrepreneurship

The last chapter introduces a methodological tool for analysing social entrepreneurship in a sports policy context, built on a number of steps in relation to the five theses. This tool has become useful in the research process and is valuable for communicating the analysis. A comparison of the seven case studies is conducted in which both similarities and differences are identified and analysed.

Sweden: The Societal Setting

Sport and social entrepreneurship are concepts that must be understood in relation to their specific societal context. Hence, this chapter looks at the broad characteristics of sport in Sweden with a focus on societal and political levels, comprising the extent of voluntary sport, its organization and financing involving the state, the market and civil society. The development of social entrepreneurship within Swedish sport is analysed. Even though the ideal of the social benefits of sport is firmly rooted in the Swedish sports movement, the argument is that the concept of social entrepreneurship must be reserved for clubs and activities that swim against the stream and set social goals before sport’s own core logics.