Johann Köppel

Consolidating the State of Knowledge: A Synoptical Review of Wind Energy’s Wildlife Effects

Abstract Wind energy development contributes substantially to achieve climate protection goals. Unintended side effects, especially on wildlife, have long been discussed and substantial research has evolved over the last decade. At this stage, it is important to identify what we have learnt so far, as well as which predominant uncertainties and gaps remain. This review article aims to consolidate the state of knowledge, providing a qualitative analysis of the main effects of wind energy development on- and offshore, focusing on frequently studied species groups (bats, breeding and resting birds, raptors, migratory birds, marine mammals). We reviewed over 220 publications from which we identified predominant hypotheses that were summarized and displayed in tables. Journal publications, conference contributions, and further studies have been considered. We found that research focusing on offshore wind energy within the last couple of years has increased significantly as well, catching up with the vast amount of onshore studies. Some hypotheses have been verified by numerous publications and a consensus has been reached (e.g., correlation between bat activity and weather factors), while others are still being debated more (e.g., determination of migratory corridors) or remain unknown (e.g., effect on population level). Factors influencing potential effects were mainly related to species characteristics (morphology, phenology, abundance, behavior, and response to turbines) or site characteristics (landscape features, weather, and habitat quality). Consolidating the state of research provides the groundwork for the identification of mitigation measures and advanced planning approaches. However, the quantification of effects remains challenging and uncertainties will always persist.

Access to information and the role of environmental assessment registries for public participation

International practice shows an increasing use of web-based Environmental Assessment (EA) registries or project websites to provide public access to information. In support of statutory public participation, registries inform when to participate and provide relevant documents and the continued availability of information. However, what constitutes good practice in this field? This article proposes a framework for assessing good practice in providing access to information via registries. Based on performance indicators for an ‘ideal’ registry, the framework allows evaluation in the review categories: framework conditions, notice of projects, provision of documents, accessibility of information and ongoing information regarding the status of the environmental assessment. An explorative case study analysis applies the framework and presents results on the performance of international practice examples.

A SNAPSHOT OF GERMANY'S EIA APPROACH IN LIGHT OF THE UNITED STATES ARCHETYPE

November 2010 marked the 25th anniversary of the EU Environmental Impact Assessment Directive and the 20th anniversary of its implementation in Germany via the Environmental Impact Assessment Act (EIAA) in 1990. Reflecting back to the original role model for these pieces of legisiation, the 1969 US National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) can bring some interesting differences to light. Four decades of experience from the more mature US EIA system may hold some important lessons for Germanys younger EIAA. While an outright comparison is impossible at this present time, this article aims to contribute a comparative perspective to show the current status of the original US model, NEPA, and the differences in development and practice to Germanys younger EIAA.

Future Research Directions to Reconcile Wind Turbine–Wildlife Interactions

Concurrent with the development of wind energy, research activity on wind energy generation and wildlife has evolved significantly during the last decade. This chapter presents an overview of remaining key knowledge gaps, consequent future research directions and their significance for management and planning for wind energy generation. The impacts of wind farms on wildlife are generally site-, species- and season-specific and related management strategies and practices may differ considerably between countries. These differences acknowledge the need to consider potential wildlife impacts for each wind farm project. Still, the ecological mechanisms guiding species’ responses and potential vulnerability to wind farms can be expected to be fundamental in nature. A more cohesive understanding of the causes, patterns, mechanisms, and consequences of animal movement decisions will thereby facilitate successful mitigation of impacts. This requires planning approaches that implement the mitigation hierarchy effectively to reduce risks to species of concern. At larger geographical scales, population-level and cumulative impacts of multiple wind farms (and other anthropogenic activity) need to be addressed. This requires longitudinal and multiple-site studies to identify species-specific traits that influence risk of mortality, notably from collision with wind turbines, disturbance or barrier effects. In addition, appropriate pre- and post-construction monitoring techniques must be utilized. Predictive modelling to forecast risk, while tackling spatio-temporal variability, can guide the mitigation of wildlife impacts at wind farms.

Mitigation Measures for Wildlife in Wind Energy Development, Consolidating the State of Knowledge — Part 1: Planning and Siting, Construction

During this rapid development of wind energy aiming to combat climate change worldwide, there is greater need to avoid, reduce, and compensate for impacts on wildlife: Through the effective use of mitigation, wind energy can continue to expand while reducing impacts. This is a first broad step into discussing and understanding mitigation strategies collectively, identifying the current state of knowledge and be a beneficial resource for practitioners and conservationists. We review the current state of published knowledge, both land-based and offshore, with a focus on wind energy–wildlife mitigation measures. We state measures and highlight their objective and discuss at which project stage it is most effective (e.g. planning, construction, and operation). Thereafter, we discuss key findings within current wind energy mitigation research, needing improved understanding into the efficacy of wildlife mitigation as well as research into the cost aspects of mitigation implementation. This paper is divided into two articles; Part 1 focuses on mitigation measures during planning, siting, and construction, while Part 2 focuses on measures during operation and decommissioning.

Balancing ecosystem services and societal demands in a highly managed watershed: setup and progress of a comprehensive research project

Corresponding address: Marianna Siegmund-Schultze Technische Universität Berlin – Secr. EB 5 – Straße des 17. Juni 145 – 10623 Berlin – Germany – E-mail: m.siegmund-schultze@tu-berlin.de ABSTRACT The INNOVATE project, a comprehensive Brazilian-German research collaboration, addresses sustainable land management in the São Francisco watershed and its Itaparica reservoir. The project studies management options, which promote sustainable ecosystem services and economic viability in climate change conditions. At basin scale, questions of water quantity and quality prevail, including resource allocation and governance. Local and regional studies investigate natural land processes and water resources in addition to their management post dam construction. Consortium researchers are confronted with a multitude of expectations, ranging from knowledge production to interacting with stakeholders and scientists of different disciplines and cultures. As an overview, we predicted potential changes of studied ecosystem services under different conditions within possible scenarios. Further integration of results is ongoing, as is the conversion of scientific results into guidance for stakeholders.

Democracy And The Environment In Russia

Since 1988, the Russian Federation has required that laws, plans, programs and all kind of projects undergo an environmental assessment. A mandatory component of the EIA in Russia is public participation. In this paper different case studies are used to find out to what extent public could influence environmental decision making processes from the early eighties until 2002. The cases selected include several where the public was passive or where it had limited activities, but also some where the participation was strong and projects were improved or stopped. As far as these case studies highlighted, the civil society in Russia can be described as an organized and sometimes strong factor in the approval process. The behaviour displayed by decision-makers, however, revealed at times a remarkable democratic deficit.

Mitigation Measures for Wildlife in Wind Energy Development, Consolidating the State of Knowledge — Part 2: Operation, Decommissioning

During this rapid development of wind energy aiming to combat climate change worldwide, there is greater need to avoid, reduce, and compensate for impacts on wildlife: Through the effective use of mitigation, wind energy can continue to expand while reducing impacts. This is a first broad step into discussing and understanding mitigation strategies collectively, identifying the current state of knowledge and be a beneficial resource for practitioners and conservationists.We review the current state of published knowledge, both land-based and offshore, with a focus on wind energy–wildlife mitigation measures. We state measures and highlight their objective and discuss at which project stage it is most effective (e.g. planning, construction, operation). Thereafter, we discuss key findings within current wind energy mitigation research, needing improved understanding into the efficacy of wildlife mitigation as well as research into the cost aspects of mitigation implementation. This review is divided into two articles; Part 1 focuses on mitigation measures during planning, siting, and construction, while Part 2 focuses on measures during operation and decommissioning.

Urban Heat: Towards Adapted German Cities?

Is heat becoming a major threat to cities? Following the heat wave in Europe in 2003, which is estimated to have caused the deaths of 70,000 people, municipal authorities began to develop adaptation and mitigation plans and programs. Legal obligations to consider climate change within various development projects have been defined, e.g. by the latest amendment of the EU EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) Directive (2014/52/EU) and the Federal Building Code (BauGB §1a (5)). However, urban heat hazards have not yet received as much attention as, for example, carbon dioxide emissions as drivers of global warming. Dense urban structures, high buildings, dark surfaces, and high population densities trigger urban heat effects. With about 3/4 of Europeans living in cities, measures to reduce heat-related impacts are needed. This paper evaluates how German cities have implemented measures towards climate change adaptation. The results show that 24 out of 30 cities have developed mitigation and/or adaptation plans, with a majority focusing on mitigating CO2, indicating less awareness of urban heat hazards. Moreover, we found elaborate and comprehensive examples which might serve as blue-prints for adaptation strategies. Based on the inhomogeneous scope of the different plans and programs, there remains a need for guidance and more knowledge exchange among the cities on mitigation/adaptation options and preferably information on their effectiveness, to further assist cities in tackling heat stress.

Unraveling the water and land nexus through inter- and transdisciplinary research: sustainable land management in a semi-arid watershed in Brazil’s Northeast

For decades, large reservoirs have been built for hydropower plants in Brazil’s São Francisco River Basin. Rural development has been a simultaneous goal with a primary focus on irrigation. Irrigated agriculture, however, has suffered from poor soils, insufficient water management strategies, and a disregard for integrating grazing-based smallholdings outside of the irrigation schemes. Recurrent droughts are distressing all sectors. This synthesis assessed sustainable land management options by investigating the aquatic and terrestrial land use systems alongside their underlying ecosystem functions and services. Decisions about the allocation of scarce water proved to be both the major issue of land use discourses and driver of practices. The primarily hydroelectricity-focused water management practice cannot be maintained at the same level in the long run, as it has become ever more adverse towards competing water usages. The increasing use of the water and adjacent land also constitutes a major potential threat to water quality. Managed water level fluctuations should generally mimic natural patterns. Wind and solar power generation are suitable complements to agricultural land use. Cycling scarce nutrients between aquatic and terrestrial sectors is ambitious but promising, ultimately improving the generally poor soils in the area. Smart management of biodiversity can foster intensively-irrigated cropping, although the non-irrigated Caatinga ecosystem needs better management of its conflicting uses. Aims and responsibilities of multi-level planning and management require clarification and coordination between sectors, while practices of public participation should be revised in order to better support a comprehensive and transparent transition towards sustainability.