John A. Gillies

Characterizing Mineral Dusts and Other Aerosols from the Middle East—Part 1: Ambient Sampling

The purpose of the Enhanced Particulate Matter Surveillance Program was to provide scientifically founded information on the chemical and physical properties of dust collected over a period of approximately 1 year in Djibouti, Afghanistan (Bagram, Khowst), Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Iraq (Balad, Baghdad, Tallil, Tikrit, Taji, Al Asad), and Kuwait (northern, central, coastal, and southern regions). Three collocated low-volume particulate samplers, one each for the total suspended particulate matter, < 10 μ m in aerodynamic diameter (PM10) particulate matter, and < 2.5 μ m in aerodynamic diameter (PM2.5) particulate matter, were deployed at each of the 15 sites, operating on a ‘1 in 6’ day sampling schedule. Trace-element analysis was performed to measure levels of potentially harmful metals, while major-element and ion-chemistry analyses provided an estimate of mineral components. Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy was used to analyze the chemical composition of small individual particles. Secondary electron images provided information on particle size and shape. This study shows the three main air pollutant types to be geological dust, smoke from burn pits, and heavy metal condensates (possibly from metals smelting and battery manufacturing facilities). Non-dust storm events resulted in elevated trace metal concentrations in Baghdad, Balad, and Taji in Iraq. Scanning-electron-microscopy secondary electron images of individual particles revealed no evidence of freshly fractured quartz grains. In all instances, quartz grains had rounded edges and mineral grains were generally coated by clay minerals and iron oxides.

Long-Term Efficiencies of Dust Suppressants to Reduce PM10 Emissions from Unpaved Roads

A 14-month study was undertaken to assess the long-term efficiencies of four dust suppressants (i.e., biocatalyst stabilizer, polymer emulsion, petroleum emulsion with polymer, and nonhazardous crude-oil-containing materials) to reduce the emission of PM10 from public unpaved roads. PM10 emission rates were calculated for each test section and for an untreated section for comparison purposes. Emission rates were determined from PM10 concentrations measured from 1.25 m to 9 m upwind and downwind of the road and above its surface. Calculated emission factors ranged between zero and 1,361 g-PM10/vehicle kilometer traveled (VKT) (average uncertainty = ±35 g-PM10/ VKT) for the four types applied. One week after application, suppressant efficiencies ranged between 33% and 100% for the four types applied. After 8-12 months of exposure to weathering and 4,900-6,400 vehicle passes, the suppressant efficiencies ranged from zero to 95%. Roadway surface properties associated with low-emitting, well-suppressed surfaces are (1) surface silt loading and (2) strength and flexibility of suppressant material as a surface layer or cover. Suppressants that create surface conditions resistant to brittle failure are less prone to deterioration and more likely to increase long-term reduction efficiency for PM10 emissions on unpaved roads.

Drag coefficient and plant form response to wind speed in three plant species: Burning Bush (Euonymus alatus), Colorado Blue Spruce (Picea pungens glauca.), and Fountain Grass (Pennisetum setaceum)

[1] Whole-plant drag coefficients (C d ) for three plant species: Burning Bush (Euonymus alatus), Colorado Blue Spruce (Picea pungens glauca.), and Fountain Grass (Pennisetum setaceum) in five different porosity configurations were developed from force versus wind speed data collected with a force balance in a recirculating wind tunnel. The average C d for the Burning Bush, Colorado Spruce, and Fountain Grass in their untrimmed forms were 0.42 (±0. 03), 0.39 (±0. 04), and 0.34 (±0. 06), respectively. Drag curves (C d versus flow Reynolds number (R e ) function) for the Burning Bush and Colorado Spruce were found to exhibit, for the lower porosity configurations, a rise to a maximum around flow Reynolds numbers (R e = ρu h h/v) of 2 x 10 5 . Fountain Grass C d was shown to be dependent upon R e to values >5 x 10 5 . The Burning Bush and Colorado Spruce plants reduced their drag, upon reaching their maxima, by decreasing their frontal area and increasing their porosity. Maximum C d for these plants occurred at optical porosities of ∼0.20. The Fountain Grass reduced drag at high R e by decreasing frontal area and porosity. The mechanism of drag reduction in Fountain Grass was continual reconfiguration to a more aerodynamic form as evidenced by continual reduction of C d with R e .

Comparison and evaluation of chemically speciated mobile source PM2.5 particulate matter profiles.

ABSTRACT Mobile sources are significant contributors to ambient PM2 5, accounting for 50% or more of the total observed levels in some locations. One of the important methods for resolving the mobile source contribution is through chemical mass balance (CMB) receptor modeling. CMB requires chemically speciated source profiles with known uncertainty to ensure accurate source contribution estimates. Mobile source PM profiles are available from various sources and are generally in the form of weight fraction by chemical species. The weight fraction format is commonly used, since it is required for input into the CMB receptor model. This paper examines the similarities and differences in mobile source PM2.5 profiles that contain data for elements, ions, elemental carbon (EC) and organic carbon (OC), and in some cases speciated organics (e.g., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [PAHs]), drawn from four different sources. Notable characteristics of the mass fraction data include variability (relative contributions of elements and ions) among supposedly similar sources and a wide range of average EC:OC ratios (0.60 ± 0.53 to 1.42 ± 2.99) for light-duty gasoline vehicles (LDGVs), indicating significant EC emissions from LDGVs in some cases. For diesel vehicles, average EC:OC ratios range from 1.09 ± 2.66 to 3.54 ± 3.07. That different populations of the same class of emitters can show considerable variability suggests caution should be exercised when selecting and using profiles in source apportionment studies.

An Assessment of the Mobile Source Contribution to PM10 and PM2.5 in the United States

Mobile sources are significant contributors to ambient particulate matter (PM) in the United States. As the emphasis shifts from PM10 to PM2.5, it becomes particularly important to account for the mobile source contribution to observed particulate levels since these sources may be the major contributor to the fine particle fraction. This is due to the fact that most mobile source mass emissions have an aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 μn, while the particles of geological origin that tend to dominate the PM10 fraction generally have an aerodynamic diameter greater than 2.5 μm. A common approach to assess the relative contributions of sources to observed particulate mass concentrations is the application of source apportionment methods. These methods include material balance, chemical mass balance (CMB), and multivariate receptor models. This paper describes a number recent source attribution studies performed in the United States in order to evaluate the range of the mobile source contribution to observed PM. In addition, a review of the methods used to apportion source contributions to ambient particulate loadings is presented.

Characterizing Mineral Dusts and Other Aerosols from the Middle East—Part 2: Grab Samples and Re-Suspensions

The purpose of the Enhanced Particulate Matter Surveillance Program was to provide scientifically founded information on the chemical and physical properties of dust collected during a period of approximately 1 year in Djibouti, Afghanistan (Bagram, Khowst), Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Iraq (Balad, Baghdad, Tallil, Tikrit, Taji, Al Asad), and Kuwait (northern, central, coastal, and southern regions). To fully understand mineral dusts, their chemical and physical properties, as well as mineralogical inter-relationships, were accurately established. In addition to the ambient samples, bulk soil samples were collected at each of the 15 sites. In each case, approximately 1kg of soil from the top 10 mm at a previously undisturbed area near the aerosol sampling site was collected. The samples were air-dried and sample splits taken for soil analysis. Further sample splits were sieved to separate the < 38 μ m particle fractions for mineralogical analysis. Examples of major-element and trace-element chemistry, mineralogy, and other physical properties of the 15 grab samples are presented. The purpose of the trace-element analysis was to measure levels of potentially harmful metals while the major-element and ion-chemistry analyses provided an estimate of mineral components. X-ray diffractometry provided a measure of the mineral content of the dust. Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy was used to analyze chemical composition of small individual particles. From similarities in the chemistry and mineralogy of re-suspended and ambient sample sets, it is evident that portions of the ambient dust are from local soils.

Exhaust Particle Size Distribution Measurements at the Tuscarora Mountain Tunnel

On-road particle size distributions were measured at the Tuscarora Mountain tunnel on the Pennsylvania Turnpike in May 1999. The data were obtained using a scanning mobility particle sizer. The nucleation modes of the size distributions contained most of the particles on a number concentration basis and exhibited peak diameters ranging from 11 to 17 nm. This observation is consistent with previous calculations and measurements, indicating that significant numbers of ultrafine aerosol particles can be expected in close proximity to busy motorways. The experiment provided 4 case studies for which the tunnel inlet data could be used to correct data obtained at the outlet, allowing for estimates of particle production within the tunnel. Exhaust particle production rates per vehicle kilometer were estimated; the results are presented with the caveat that the measurements were affected by ambient dilution. The 4 case study nucleation mode sizes varied inversely with ambient temperature. The light-duty vehicle contributions to the ultrafine particle distributions were apparently dominated by the heavy-duty vehicle contributions.

Field determination of drag forces and shear stress partitioning effects for a desert shrub (Sarcobatus vermiculatus, greasewood)

Drag coefficients (Cd) for the desert shrub greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) were developed from force versus wind speed data collected with an omnidirectional force balance. The average Cd for a small (0.6 m high, 0.5 m wide) shrub and a larger (1.6 m high, 1.3 m wide) shrub were 1.425 (±0.103) and 0.435 (±0.200), respectively. These values are much larger than similarly shaped solid elements and previously reported values for creosote bush (Larrea tridentata, Cd = 0.485) and an artificial tree (0.4). The greater Cd value for greasewood probably results from factors related to porosity and vegetation structure that gives this shrub-type greater momentum extracting potential. The drag coefficients for the greasewood shrubs were found to show dependence upon flow Reynolds numbers >6×105, corresponding to wind speeds greater than 18 m s−1 at 10 m. The developed greasewood Cd values were used in a shear stress partitioning model that indicated they would be extremely effective at reducing wind-generated sediment transport at low-percent coverage.

Middle- and neighborhood-scale variations of PM10 source contributions in Las Vegas, Nevada

The Las Vegas Valley PM10 Study was conducted during 1995 to determine the contributions to PM10 aerosol from fugitive dust, motor vehicle exhaust, residential wood combustion, and secondary aerosol sources. Twenty-four-hr PM10 samples were collected at two neighborhood-scale sites every sixth day for 13 months. Five week-long intensive studies were conducted over a middle-scale sub-region at 29 locations that contained many construction projects emitting fugitive dust. The study found that the zone of influence around individual emitters was less than 1 km. Most of the sampling sites in residential and commercial areas yielded equivalent PM10 concentrations in the neighborhood region, even though they were more distant from each other than they were from the nearby construction sources. Based on chemical mass balance (CMB) receptor modeling, fugitive dust accounted for 80-90% of the PM10, and motor vehicle exhaust accounted for 3-9% of the PM10 in the Las Vegas Valley.

Comparison of PI‐SWERL with dust emission measurements from a straight‐line field wind tunnel

[1] The Portable In situ Wind ERosion Lab (PI-SWERL) was developed to measure dust emissions from soil surfaces. This small, portable unit can test the emissivity of soils in areas that are difficult to access with a field wind tunnel, and can complete a larger number of tests in less time. The PI-SWERL consists of a cylindrical enclosure containing an annular flat blade that rotates at different speeds, which generates shear stress upon the surface. The shear stress generated by PI-SWERL results in the entrainment of particles including dust. PI-SWERL was developed to provide an index of dust emission potential comparable to the field wind tunnel. The PI-SWERL dust emission results were compared against those obtained from a � 12 m long, 1 m wide, 0.75 m high straight line suction-type portable field wind tunnel by conducting collocated tests at 32 distinct field settings and soil conditions in the Mojave Desert of southern California. Clay- to sand-rich soils that displayed a range of crusting, gravel cover, and disturbance were tested. The correspondence between dust emissions (mg m �2 s �1 ) for the two instruments is nearly 1:1 on most surfaces. Deviation between the two instruments was noted for densely packed gravel surfaces. For rough surfaces a correction can be applied to the PI-SWERL that results in comparable dust emission data to the wind tunnel. PI-SWERL can be used to complement research efforts in aeolian geomorphology aimed to quantify spatial and temporal patterns of dust emissions as well as air quality research related to dust emissions.