John A. Hughes

Moving out from the control room: ethnography in system design

Ethnography has gained considerable prominence as a technique for informing CSCW systems development of the nature of work. Experiences of ethnography reported to date have focused on the use of prolonged on-going enthnography to inform systems design. A considerable number of these studies have taken place within constrained and focused work domain. This paper reflects more generally on the experiences of using ethnography across a number of different projects and in a variety of domains of study. We identify a number of ways in which we have used ethnography to inform design and consider the benefits and problems of each.

Ethnographically-informed systems design for air traffic control

This paper relates experiences of a project where an ethnographic study of air traffic controllers is being used to inform the design of the controllers’ interface to the flight data base. We outline the current UK air traffic control system, discuss the ethnographic work we have undertaken studying air traffic control as a cooperative activity, describe some of the difficulties in collaboration between software developers and sociologists and show how the ethnographic studies have influenced the systems design process. Our conclusions are that ethnographic studies are helpful in informing the systems design process and may produce insights which contradict conventional thinking in systems design.

At home with the technology: an ethnographic study of a set-top-box trial

The rapid growth and development of the Internet and the resulting growth in interest in access to network facilities highlights an increasing prominence of computer technology in the home. In this paper we report on a study of the social organisation of a number of domestic environments in the north west of England and consider the ways in which an understanding of the nature of the home is of interest to the developers of future interactive technology. Thus, in the first half of the paper we consider the everyday nature of home-life and in the second half report on an ethnographically-based evaluation of a prototype set top box for the provision of digital services to the home. In addition to reflecting on the nature of activities in the home we conclude by considering the design implications that can be drawn from an examination of these activities.

From ethnographic record to system design

This paper explores the issues involved in moving from ethnographic explorations of work in context to a practical contribution to system design. It does so using the example of an interdisciplinary research project involving sociologists and computer scientists in the domain of air traffic control systems. It forms a pair with another paper (Sommerville et al., 1992) exploring these questions from the perspective of our computer science partners. We characterise ethnography as a research method, and consider the differences between undertaking it for strictly sociological or anthropological purposes by contrast with interdisciplinary and design purposes. We summarise some of our results in ethnographic explications of the work of air traffic controllers, and the sociality which it manifests. We describe the dialogues involved in rendering these observations ‘informative’ for systems design, and the mutual translations implied in attempting to reconcile sociological with software engineering questions about supporting the work. We conclude by specifying some features of cooperative work which an engineering approach is in danger of overlooking; the ways, and limits, in which ethnographers can form a ‘bridge’ between users and designers; and some of the conflicts of interest entrained in generating technical change.

Presenting ethnography in the requirements process

We argue that the industrial development of interactive systems has to recognise the social dimension of work if these systems are to fully meet the real needs of their users. Under current approaches this depends on whether an individual requirements engineer implicitly applies a user centred approach, recognises the importance of cooperation and is sufficiently sympathetic and intuitive to understand the work and reflect this in the system requirements. We wish to move beyond this by allowing for the provision of a more systematic incorporation of the social dimensions of work. To this end we focus on developing a novel approach to the presentation of ethnographic material. Our approach is based on the use of number of viewpoints and is embodied within a general hypertext tool.

Designing with ethnography: making work visible

Abstract The paper reviews some aspects of a research project in which ethnographic studies of air traffic controllers at work were used to inform the design of an electronic flight strip. In particular, it emphasises the important role of ethnography in gaining an insight into the fine grained and often ‘invisible’ aspects of work which are essential to its accomplishment and which must be taken account of in the design process. The paper also reviews some of the practical lessons of interdisciplinary working and the role, along with some limitations, that ethnographic studies can play in the system design process.

Patterns of home life: Informing design for domestic environments

This paper considers how we may provide support for the development of general design principles in domestic environments. In particular, we examine the potential for usingdesign patterns as a means of presenting ethnographic material and outlining design solutions. The paper reports on the development of an initial pattern language based on our studies of a number of domestic, environments and offers a general structure for presenting these patterns. Finally, we briefly reflect on our experiences of developing an on-line set of patterns for this class of environment.

Understanding Technology in Domestic Environments: Lessons for Cooperative Buildings

This paper considers the nature of interactive technology within domestic environments and how we might want to consider the design of technology for domestic environments. As part of this work it highlights the methodological issues faced in the design of systems for the home environments. The shortage of detailed knowledge of activities in the home is highlighted as a major issue in understanding the situated nature of technologies. A series of studies of domestic environments is presented alongside the design challenges they raise.

Recognising “success” and “failure”: evaluating groupware in a commercial context

This paper reports on the installation and use of two commercial ‘groupware’ systems, a videolink and electronic document exchange, in a major clearing bank in the UK. It suggests some of the complexities involved in evaluating groupware in a business such that recognising and understanding even such gross terms as ‘success’ and ‘failure’ is far from easy. Consequently it argues that a more nuanced appreciation of success and failure needs to be developed and, therefore, some form of ethnographic, ‘illuminative’ evaluation may prove commercially worthwhile.

Girls, Boys and Politics

Some of the most solidly researched and validated findings in the social sciences relate to the differential participation of men and women in political activities… Women have been found to vote less than men, to participate in political parties less than men, to know less about politics than men, to have less interest in politics than men and to be more conservative than men. [A number of sources are cited documenting these differences, and the proposed explanations reviewed below.]