John Antonakis

Context and leadership: an examination of the nine-factor full-range leadership theory using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire ☆

In this study, we examined the validity of the measurement model and factor structure of Bass and Avolio’s Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) (Form 5X). We hypothesized that evaluations of leadership—and hence the psychometric properties of leadership instruments—may be affected by the context in which leadership is observed and evaluated. Using largely homogenous business samples consisting of 2279 pooled male and 1089 pooled female raters who evaluated same-gender leaders, we found support for the nine-factor leadership model proposed by Bass and Avolio. The model was configurally and partially metrically invariant—suggesting that the same constructs were validly measured in the male and female groups. Mean differences were found between the male and female samples on four leadership factors (Study 1). Next, using factor-level data of 18 independently gathered samples (N=6525 raters) clustered into prototypically homogenous contexts, we tested the nine-factor model and found it was stable (i.e., fully invariant) within homogenous contexts (Study 2). The contextual factors comprised environmental risk, leader–follower gender, and leader hierarchical level. Implications for use of the MLQ and nine-factor model are discussed.

LEADER DISTANCE: A REVIEW AND A PROPOSED THEORY

Abstract The concept of leader distance has been subsumed in a number of leadership theories; however, with few exceptions, leadership scholars have not expressly defined nor discussed leader distance, how distance is implicated in the legitimization of a leader, and how distance affects leader outcomes. We review available literature and demonstrate that integral to untangling the dynamics of the leadership influencing process is an understanding of leader–follower distance. We present distance in terms of three independent dimensions: leader–follower physical distance, perceived social distance, and perceived task interaction frequency. We discuss possible antecedents of leader–follower distance, including organizational and task characteristics, national culture, and leader/follower implicit motives. Finally, we use configural theory to present eight typologies (i.e., coexistence of a cluster or constellation of independent factors serving as a unit of analysis) of leader distance and propose an integrated cross-level model of leader distance, linking the distance typologies to leader outcomes at the individual and group levels of analysis.

Considering context in psychological leadership research

Despite Lewin’s identification of the importance of context in behavioral research over 70 years ago, leadership psychology tended to ignore the context. Only in the past 10 years has context been more routinely included in psychological leadership research. We provide examples of leadership research that has explored the context, introduce the special issue articles, and provide suggestions for future research on the context of leadership.

The Full-Range Leadership Theory: The Way Forward

In this chapter, we briefly trace the history of the neo-charismatic movement and review Bass and Avolio’s full-range leadership theory (FRLT). We present the FRLT as the flame bearer of the movement, and argue that it should be used as a platform to integrate similar leadership theories. We identify conditions that may moderate the factor structure of the FRLT, and review the validity of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire – the instrument underlying the FRLT. Furthermore, we identify theoretical deficiencies in the FRLT and propose the addition of a broad class of behaviors labeled instrumental leadership, which, we argue, is distinct from transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership. Finally, we discuss the utility of dispositional variables in predicting the emergence of leadership.

Reflections on Partial Least Squares Path Modeling

The purpose of the present article is to take stock of a recent exchange in Organizational Research Methods between critics and proponents of partial least squares path modeling (PLS-PM). The two target articles were centered around six principal issues, namely whether PLS-PM: (a) can be truly characterized as a technique for structural equation modeling (SEM), (b) is able to correct for measurement error, (c) can be used to validate measurement models, (d) accommodates small sample sizes, (e) is able to provide null hypothesis tests for path coefficients, and (f) can be employed in an exploratory, model-building fashion. We summarize and elaborate further on the key arguments underlying the exchange, drawing from the broader methodological and statistical literature to offer additional thoughts concerning the utility of PLS-PM and ways in which the technique might be improved. We conclude with recommendations as to whether and how PLS-PM serves as a viable contender to SEM approaches for estimating and evaluating theoretical models.

Interpersonal Power A Review, Critique, and Research Agenda

Power is a fundamental force in social relationships and is pervasive throughout various types of interactions. Although research has shown that the possession of power can change the power holder, the full extent of power’s consequences on individuals’ decision-making capabilities and social interactions within organizations is not fully understood. The goal of this paper is to review, synthesize, and critique the literature on power with a focus on its organizational and managerial implications. Specifically, we propose a definition of power that takes into account its three defining characteristics—having the discretion and means to enforce one’s will—and summarize the extant literature on how power influences individuals’ thoughts, emotions, and actions both in terms of prosocial and antisocial outcomes. In addition, we highlight important moderators of power and describe ways in which it can be studied in a more rigorous manner by examining methodological issues and pitfalls with regard to its measurement and manipulation. We also provide future research directions to motivate and guide the study of power by management scholars. Our desire is to present a thorough and parsimonious account of power’s influence on individuals within an organizational context, as well as provide a foundation that scholars can build upon as they continue to make consequential contributions to the study of power.

Kinship in Entrepreneur Networks: Performance Effects of Resource Assembly in Africa

We examine the relationship among structural social capital, resource assembly, and firm performance of entrepreneurs in Africa. We posit that social capital primarily composed of kinship or family ties helps the entrepreneur to raise resources, but it does so at a cost. Using data drawn from small firms in Kampala, Uganda, we explore how shared identity among the entrepreneurs social network moderates the relationship between social capital and outcomes. A large network contributed a higher quantity of resources raised, but at a higher cost when shared identity was high. We discuss the implications of these findings for the role of family ties and social capital in resource assembly, with an emphasis on developing economies.

Can standard operating procedures be motivating? Reconciling process variability issues and behavioural outcomes1

Abstract It is generally agreed that requiring employees to perform their tasks according to Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) can improve production outcomes in the context of repetitive manufacturing. Attempts to link SOP use to intrinsic motivation – a requirement for creativity – have, however, resulted in controversy. In this paper, we discuss the relationship between required SOP use and worker creativity, as mediated by worker intrinsic motivation, and suggest that the relationship between required SOP use and intrinsic motivation and creativity is moderated by (a) availability of accurate process documentation and (b) employee participation in developing of process documentation.

Leadership Process Models: A Review and Synthesis:

In organizational research, studying “processes” is important for uncovering and understanding the underlying causal mechanisms in a predictor-mediator-outcome logic. Processes answer “how” and “why” questions and provide more complete explanations about phenomena. Our focus in this review is on studies of leadership processes, which we systematically analyze to report on the state of the science. In doing so, we present a two-dimensional target-centric taxonomy to integrate previous research: The taxonomy distinguishes the target’s level (i.e., individual follower, team, organizational, and extraorganizational) as well as the type of leadership processes that affect either the target’s development or leverage of resources. Our review indicates that the predominantly studied leadership “meta” process model looks at the effect of leader traits or behaviors on performance-related outcomes through cognitive, affective, or behavioral leveraging factors. This “meta” model points to several important and understudied processes, including a leader’s influence on the target’s development or work context. We also identify two largely overlooked yet critical issues for leadership process research: modeling the role of time and that of multiple processes through which leadership effects manifest themselves in organizations. Using our taxonomy, we provide several reflection points that can guide the development of genuine and thoughtful leadership process theories. We conclude by urging future leadership process research to embrace multiprocess, multilevel, and time-sensitive models.

When Preference Is Not Satisfied but the Individual Is: How Power Distance Moderates Person–Job Fit

One aspect of person–job fit reflects congruence between personal preferences and job design; as congruence increases so should satisfaction. The authors hypothesized that power distance would moderate whether fit is related to satisfaction with degree of job formalization. They obtained measures of job formalization, fit, and satisfaction, as well as organizational commitment, from employees (N = 772) in a multinational firm with subsidiaries in six countries. Confirming previous findings, individuals from low-power-distance cultures were most satisfied with increasing fit. However, the extent to which individuals from high-power-distance cultures were satisfied did not necessarily depend on increasing fit but mostly on whether the degree of formalization received was congruent with cultural norms. Irrespective of culture, satisfaction with formalization predicted a broad measure of organizational commitment. Apart from the novel extension of fit theory, the authors show how moderation can be tested in the context of polynomial response surface regression and how specific hypotheses can be tested regarding different points on the response surface.