John E. Fa

Bushmeat and food security in the Congo Basin: linkages between wildlife and people's future

Tropical moist forests in Africa are concentrated in the Congo Basin. A variety of animals in these forests, in particular mammals, are hunted for their meat, termed bushmeat. This paper investigates current and future trends of bushmeat protein, and non-bushmeat protein supply, for inhabitants of the main Congo Basin countries. Since most bushmeat is derived from forest mammals, published extraction ( E ) and production ( P ) estimates of mammal populations were used to calculate the per person protein supplied by these. Current bushmeat protein supply may range from 30 g person −1 day −1 in the Democratic Republic of Congo, to 180 g person −1 day −1 in Gabon. Future bushmeat protein supplies were predicted for the next 50 years by employing current E : P ratios, and controlling for known deforestation and population growth rates. At current exploitation rates, bushmeat protein supply would drop 81% in all countries in less than 50 years; only three countries would be able to maintain a protein supply above the recommended daily requirement of 52 g person −1 day −1 . However, if bushmeat harvests were reduced to a sustainable level, all countries except Gabon would be dramatically affected by the loss of wild protein supply. The dependence on bushmeat protein is emphasized by the fact that four out of the five countries studied do not produce sufficient amounts of non-bushmeat protein to feed their populations. These findings imply that a significant number of forest mammals could become extinct relatively soon, and that protein malnutrition is likely to increase dramatically if food security in the region is not promptly resolved.

Evolution and ecology of macaque societies

Preface J. E. Fa and D. G. Lindburg Part I. Biogeography and Evolution: 1. Evolutionary relationships of the Macaques G. A. Hoelzer and D. J. Melnick 2. Genetic relatedness between populations of Macaca fascicularis on Sumatra W. Scheffrahn and J. R. de Ruiter 3. Secondary intergradation between Macaca maurus and M. tonkeana, and the species status of M. togeanus J.W. Froelich and J. Supriatna Part II. Population Biology, Ecology and Conservation: 4. A comparison of ecological strategies of Pig-tailed Macaques, Mandrills and Drills J. O. Caldecott, A. Feistner and L. Gadsby 5. A comparison of Rhesus Macaques in temperate and tropical environments J. O. Caldecott, A. Feistner and L. Gadsby 6. Demography and dynamics of Barbary Macaque troops in different habitats N. Menard and D. Vallet 7. Grouping patterns and group composition in Macaca nigrescens A. Kohlhaas and C. H. Southwick 8. Socioecological dynamics of Japanese Macaque troop ranging T. Maruhashi, Y. Takahata and H. Takasaki 9. Riverine refuging by wild Sumatran Long-tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis) C. P.van Shaik, A. van Amerongen and M. van Noordwijk 10. Comparison of provisioned and wild Long-tailed Macaques B. Wheatley, M. Gonder and D. K. Harya Putra 11. Inter-regional and inter-seasonal variations of food quality in Japanese Macaques N. Nakagawa, T. Iwamoto, N. Yokota and G. Soumah 12. Population management and viability of the Gibraltar Barbary Macaques J. E. Fa and R. Lind 13. Eco-ethology of Tibetan Macaques at Mt. Emei, China Q. Zhao Part III. Mating and Social Systems: 14. Differential reproduction in male and female Barbary Macaques A. Paul and J. Kuester 15. Reproductive behaviour of captive Lion-tailed Macaques D. J. Lindburg 16. Sexual behaviour and mating system in wild Pig-tailed Macaques in West Sumatra T. Oi 17. Determinants of reproductive seasonality in Japanese Macaques L. Fedigan and L. Griffin 18. Behaviour of mixed species groups of macaques F. D. Burton and L. Chan 19. The population genetic consequences of Macaque social organisation and behaviour D. J. Melnick and G. A. Hoelzer 20. Variation in social mechanisms by which males attain the alpha rank among Japanese Macaques D. S. Sprague, S. Suzuki and T. Tsukahara 21. Life history of females in a wild population of Yaku Macaques D. A. Hill and N. Okaysu 22. Twenty year social history of a dominant Stumptail Macaque matriline R. Rhine and A. Maryanski 23. Branch shaking and related displays in wild Barbary Macaques P. T. Mehlman 24. The interplay of kinship organisation and facial communication in the Macaques A. Zeller 25. Vocal communication in Macaques M. D. Hauser.

market dynamics of bushmeat species in Equatorial Guinea

1. Wild animals are an important protein source in many countries in West Africa. Studies of numbers and fluctuations of game species entering markets can provide vital information on wildlife use and exploitation in the consumer regions. 2. Two market sites in each of the most important towns, Malabo (Bioko Island) and Bata (Rio Muni) in the Republic of Equatorial Guinea, central Africa, were studied from October 1990 to October 1991. 3. 15 and 38 species of mammals, birds and reptiles were recorded in Bioko and Rio Muni, respectively. A total of 18012 carcasses was counted; 61.2% in Bioko and 38.8% in Rio Muni. 4. Abundance and availability of individual bushmeat species were described by: (a) the daily abundance of species (DA) as the average number of carcasses species -1 day -1 during all sampled days; (b) the carcass volume (CV) for each species as the average number of carcasses species -1 day -1 sold during available days, and (c) the species availability (MA) in markets as the percentage number of days per month during which a species was present for sale. 5. Two species, Cephalophus monticola and Cricetomys emini, in Bioko and C. monticola and Atherurus africanus in Rio Muni accounted for more than half of all carcasses brought into markets. 6. Seasonal differences in number of carcasses entering markets in Bioko were observed between dry and wet periods. In Rio Muni, increases were observed during the short dry and long rains periods. 7. Monthly changes in number of carcasses of species (>50 year -1 ) were compared between markets using Spearman rank correlation tests. Two main clusters appeared in relation to abundance of species in markets. 8. Bushmeat demand in the large towns in Equatorial Guinea may possibly exceed supply at present. Studies of bushmeat dynamics in markets can be used to monitor use of wildlife resources in the country.

Body size, diet and population density in Afrotropical forest mammals : a comparison with neotropical species

1. This paper presents body mass and population density data for 88 African forest mammal species from over 200 references. It uses phylogenetic comparative methods to examine the association between population density and body mass in relation to diet both in these data and in a similar compilation of data from over a hundred neotropical forest mammal species. 2. Predictably, population densities declined with increasing body mass. The regression slope of log density on log mass for all the data combined was -0.54 (SE 0.075). 3. Density decreased with increasing trophic level and with increasing specialization, although these factors could not be separated. The slope of density on mass did not differ significantly among trophic levels nor among dietary categories. Myrmecophagy, the most specialized diet, seemed to be associated with the lowest relative population densities. 4. The slopes obtained for the African assemblage and for all data combined were significantly different from -0.75. Within dietary categories and within trophic levels, slopes did not differ significantly from -0.75, although sample sizes were often small. 5. There is no evidence to suggest that the relationships between mass, density and trophic level differ between Afrotropical and neotropical forest mammals.

Bushmeat Consumption and Preferences of Two Ethnic Groups in Bioko Island, West Africa

We studied consumption and preference of meats of wild species (bushmeat) by inhabitants of Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea. The aim of the study was to quantify frequency of consumption and stated preferences of the two main ethnic groups (Bubi and Fang) in the island. Although members of both ethnic groups lived on the island, the Fang originated from the continent and maintained strong links with this area. Thus, preference and consumption of the Fang reflected exposure to animals found in the continent as well as on Bioko. A sample of 196 subjects (115 Bubi and 81 Fang) was interviewed using semistructured questionnaires. A total of 55 different bushmeat species was identified as preferred or consumed by interviewees. Principal component analyses of stated consumption and preference indicated differences between ethnic groups in their general responses. Further analyses of the effects of preference and other factors on consumption of the three main species mentioned (blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola), Emins rat (Cricetomys emini), and brush-tailed porcupine (Atherurus africanus) were undertaken. Proportional odds logistic regression models for ordered categorical response data were employed. Results indicated that age and sex of the respondent did not affect consumption, but ethnic group was statistically significant for the three-study species. Consumption and preference of the different meats (N = 11 species) in relation to their availability in the market and price was studied using multiple linear regressions. Consumption is driven predominantly by availability but there is some influence of preference; price of the meat did not have a significant influence.

Bring the captive closer to the wild: redefining the role of ex situ conservation

In situ conservation is central to contemporary global biodiversity protection and is the predominant emphasis of international regulation and funding strategies. Ex situ approaches, in contrast, have been relegated to a subsidiary role and their direct contributions to conservation have been limited. We draw on a variety of sources to make the case for an enhanced role for ex situ conservation. We note the advances occurring within institutions specializing in ex situ conservation and stress that, although much remains to be done, many constraints are being addressed. We argue that the evidence of increasing extinction rates, exacerbated by climate change, challenges the wisdom of a heavy dependence on in situ strategies and necessitates increased development of ex situ approaches. A number of different techniques that enable species and their habitats tosurvive should now be explored. These could build on the experience of management systems that have already demonstrated the effective integration of in situ and ex situ techniques and hybrid approaches. For organizations specializing in ex situ conservation to become more effective, however, they will require tangible support from the institutions of global biodiversity governance. Resistance is anticipated because in situ conservation is entrenched through powerful groups and organizations that exert influence on global conservation policy and facilitate the flow of funding. The chasm that has traditionally divided in situ and ex situ approaches may diminish as approaches are combined. Moreover, the relentless loss of the ‘wild’ may soon render the in situ / ex situ distinction misleading, or even obsolete. Keywords Botanical gardens, captive breeding, climate

Contrasts in availability and consumption of animal protein in Bioko Island, West Africa : the role of bushmeat

Most protein in sub-Saharan Africa comes from animal sources, a significant proportion of this from wild species or bushmeat. Availability of protein sources to human populations in Africa has not been studied before, perhaps because most population centres are too large for data collection to be practicable. Assessment of the availability and consumption of animal protein within the city of Malabo ( c . 60 000 inhabitants), Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea, included estimation of the annual animal protein supply to the city from daily counts of small livestock meats (goat, pork, lamb, duck, chicken), beef, fish and bushmeat (December 2003–March 2004) in the citys central market and other selling points, and the animal protein consumption per adult male equivalent (AME) derived from a sample of around 200 households to explore influence of household income on consumption of different protein sources. Current animal protein production (bushmeat, small livestock meats, beef and fish) in Bioko, and potential production needed to supply adequate amounts of protein to the people of Malabo in the future were calculated. Annually around 2100 t of meat/fish (460 t of animal protein) was available, of which only 7% was produced on the island. Consumption patterns indicated that larger-sized households purchased more meat, but protein intake per AME fell significantly with household size. Income was positively correlated with volume of small livestock meats consumed per household, but negatively related with bushmeat eaten. Income did not influence beef or fish consumption per household. Although the island is capable of producing more alternative meats, it cannot sustain itself on local production and will therefore continue to be dependent on importing a large proportion of meat (and protein). There is no dependency on bushmeat species, but current rates of wild species use can still have a dramatic impact on wildlife populations on the island if left unabated. Alternative ways of ensuring sufficient protein supply for the Malabo population are crucial for wildlife conservation, and curbing consumption of bushmeat species is of highest conservation priority now.

Effects of Tourists on Barbary Macaques at Gibraltar

Interactions between tourists and Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) at Queens Gate, Gibraltar, are described. Interaction rates are high, with 99.6 interactions/h at peak times. Macaques spend 13.2% of their day interacting with tourists and 41.9% inactive. An overall ratio of 3.2:1 between human-initiated and macaque-initiated interactions was found. Of interactions involving humans, 85% concerned tourists. Diurnal activity patterns of the macaques were adapted to tourist visitation patterns. Old animals initiated more food-related interactions than younger ones. Infants/juveniles were the commonest class in contacts with humans and vehicles. Interactions involving more than one macaque were rare. High interaction rates were recorded for mothers and babies.

How to save the rarest Darwin's finch from extinction: the mangrove finch on Isabela Island.

Habitat destruction and predation by invasive alien species has led to the disappearance of several island populations of Darwins finches but to date none of the 13 recognized species have gone extinct. However, driven by rapid economic growth in the Galápagos, the effects of introduced species have accelerated and severely threatened these iconic birds. The critically endangered mangrove finch (Camarhynchus heliobates) is now confined to three small mangroves on Isabela Island. During 2006–2009, we assessed its population status and monitored nesting success, both before and after rat poisoning. Population size was estimated at around only 100 birds for the two main breeding sites, with possibly 5–10 birds surviving at a third mangrove. Before rat control, 54 per cent of nests during incubation phase were predated with only 18 per cent of nests producing fledglings. Post-rat control, nest predation during the incubation phase fell to 30 per cent with 37 per cent of nests producing fledglings. During the nestling phase, infestation by larvae of the introduced parasitic fly (Philornis downsi) caused 14 per cent additional mortality. Using population viability analysis, we simulated the probability of population persistence under various scenarios of control and showed that with effective management of these invasive species, mangrove finch populations should start to recover.

Rabbits and hominin survival in Iberia.

High dependence on the hunting and consumption of large mammals by some hominins may have limited their survival once their preferred quarry became scarce or disappeared. Adaptation to smaller residual prey would have been essential after the many large-bodied species decreased in numbers. We focus on the use of a superabundant species, the rabbit, to demonstrate the importance of this taxon in Iberia as fundamental to predators. We show that the use of the rabbit over time has increased, and that there could have been differential consumption by Neanderthals and Anatomically Modern Humans (AMH). Analysis of bone remains from excavations throughout Iberia show that this lagomorph was a crucial part of the diet of AMH but was relatively unutilised during the Mousterian, when Neanderthals were present. We first present changes in mammalian biomass and mean body mass of mammals over 50,000 years, to illustrate the dramatic loss of large mammalian fauna and to show how the rabbit may have contributed a consistently high proportion of the available game biomass throughout that period. Unlike the Italian Peninsula and other parts of Europe, in Iberia the rabbit has provided a food resource of great importance for predators including hominins. We suggest that hunters that could shift focus to rabbits and other smaller residual fauna, once larger-bodied species decreased in numbers, would have been able to persist. From the evidence presented here, we postulate that Neanderthals may have been less capable of prey-shifting and hence use the high-biomass prey resource provided by the rabbit, to the extent AMH did.