John Grattan

Geochemical evidence for atmospheric pollution derived from prehistoric copper mining at Copa hill, Cwmystwyth, mid-Wales. UK

This paper presents geochemical data from a blanket peat located close to a Bronze Age copper mine on the northern slopes of the Ystwyth valley, Ceredigion, mid-Wales, UK. The research objective was to explore the possibility that the peat contained a geochemical record of the pollution generateD by mining activity. Four peat monoliths were extracted from the blanket peat to reconstruct the pollution history of the prehistoric mine. Three different geochemical measurement techniques were employed and four copper profiles have been reconstructed, two of which are radiocarbon-dated. The radiocarbon dates at one profile located close to the mine confirm that copper enrichment occurs in the peat during the known period of prehistoric mining. Similar enrichment of copper concentrations is shown in one adjacent profile and a profile within 30 m away. In contrast, copper was not enriched in the other radiocarbon-dated monolith, collected approximately 1.35 km to the north of the mine. Whilst other possible explanations to explain the copper concentrations are discussed, it is argued that the high copper concentrations represent evidence of localised atmospheric pollution caused by Bronze Age copper mining in the British Isles. The results of this study suggest that copper may be immobile in blanket peat and such deposits can usefully be used to reconstruct atmospheric pollution histories in former copper mining areas.

Heavy Metals in Holocene Peats from South West England: Detecting Mining Impacts and Atmospheric Pollution

South west England has a long history of mining and smelting activity, primarily focused upon the exploitation of tin (Sn), copper (Cu) and arsenic (As) in the mineralised zones of the upland areas. Fragmentary archaeological evidence exists for the exploitation of these mineral resources from the mid-Bronze Age onwards (ca. 1000 BC). This paper explores the usefulness of two peatland systems in revealing the history of trace metal pollution associated with this activity in the south west peninsula and further afield. Using quantitative XRF analyses it was possible to reconstruct the pollution histories for the two sites investigated by analysis of Cu, Zn, As and Pb. Results are presented both as element concentration profiles and as enrichment factors using ash content to normalise the data. Tor Royal, a large raised mire on Dartmoor, contained a regional signal suggesting that concentrations of trace metals began to rise following mid-Neolithic (ca. 2500 BC) disturbance activity on the moor. Sustained increases are noted from this period with a definite peak detected in peats dating from the period of Roman occupation (ca. AD 0-400). The Pb profile displays the characteristic industrial revolution increase and recent decline, the result of the decline in British Pb mining, and the use of lead based petrol additives. Crift Down, a small soligenous mire, displays a more local signal of which the most significant features include the high concentrations of lithogenic elements: rubidium (Rb), yttrium (Y) and uranium (U), and metals (Cu and Zn). Qualitative analyses of the sediments using EDMA provides qualified evidence of local Sn extraction and processing operations, known from archaeological excavations, to date from the Medieval period (10th to 14th centuries AD). Regional variations in atmospheric pollution are also recorded, particularly for Pb. The detection of early mineral exploitation in sediments of this kind is an important step in understanding the extent and nature of mining and smelting in the past history of south west England.

Early-Holocene environments in the Wadi Faynan, Jordan

Evidence for early-Holocene environments in the Wadi Faynan in the rift-margin in souther Jordan is described. The early Holocene of Jordan is not well known and palynology, plant macrofossils and molluscs from Wadi Faynan provide evidence for a much more humid-forest-steppe and steppe-environment than the present stony desert and highly degraded steppe. The early-Holocene fluvial sediments in the Faynan catchment are predominantly fine-grained, epsilon crossbedded and highly fossiliferous. They provide convincing evidence for meandering perennial rivers before 6000 cal. BP. It is probable that this early-Holocene landscape was disrupted by the impact of early farmers and by climate change-the 8.1 ka event appears to be marked by desiccation. By the Chalcolithic, environmental degradation was well advanced.

Environment and land use in the Wadi Faynan, southern Jordan : The second season of geoarchaeology and landscape archaeology (1997)

AbstractThis report describes the third season of fieldwork by an interdisciplinary team of archaeologists and geographers working to reconstrnct the landscape history of the Wadi Faynan in southern Jordan over the past 200,000 years. The particular focus of the project is the long-term history of inter-relationships between landscape and people, as a contribution to the study of processes of desertification and environmental degradation. The geomorphological and palaeoecological studies have now established the outline sequence of landform changes and climatic fluctuations in the late Pleistocene and Holocene. The complex field system WF4 has now been recorded in its entirety in terms of wall construction, suiface artefacts, and hydrological features, as well as most of the outlying field systems. From these studies, in combination with the analysis of the suiface artefacts, an outline sequence of the water utilization and management strategies they represent can now be discerned. Ethnoarchaeology is als...

Environmental change and tephra deposition : the Strath of Kildonan, Northern Scotland

Pollen analysis, tephra counts and geochemical data are presented from the upper 200 cm of a core from a basin mire in the Strath of Kildonan, northern Scotland. Three main tephra concentrations are located and tentatively dated to c. 7650bp (K1), c. 4250 bp (K2) and 3250 bp (K3) by cross correlation with the regional pollen chronology. The identity of the tephra layers is unknown but the peak at 4250 bp may be from the Hekla 4 eruption. The associated changes in catchment soils and vegetation are highly variable. K1 is associated with a major vegetation disturbance but no significant change occurs at K3. K2 is correlated with a large regional rise in pine pollen. These results conflict with previous studies on distal impacts of volcanic activity during the Holocene and demonstrate the diversity of environmental changes associated with Holocene volcanic activity.

‘Death... more desirable than life’? The human skeletal record and toxicological implications of ancient copper mining and smelting in Wadi Faynan, southwestern Jordan

Skeletal material from 36 people, dating from the early Christian era, who lived by or worked in the notorious Roman copper mines of Phaeno, were analysed to determine their exposure to copper and lead. We demonstrate that many of the bones analysed had a substantially higher concentration of these cations than modern individuals exposed to metals through industrial processes. Health, toxicological and environmental implications of these data are reviewed.

An atmospheric pollution history for lead-zinc mining from the Ystwyth Valley, Dyfed, mid-Wales, UK as recorded by an upland blanket peat

This paper presents records of the atmospheric deposition of lead and zinc close to a former metal mining area as recorded by an upland blanket peat that has accumulated on the northern slopes of the Ystwyth valley, Dyfed, mid-Wales, UK. The research objective was to explore the possibility that the peat contained a geochemical record of the pollution generated by mining activity during the last four millennia. Four monoliths were extracted from the blanket peat to reconstruct the pollution history of lead and zinc mining. Three different geochemical measurement techniques were employed, and five lead and zinc profiles have been reconstructed, two of which are radiocarbon-dated. In the radiocarbon-dated monoliths lead enrichment occurs in the peat during the Roman occupation whilst both lead and zinc concentrations increase from the Mediaeval period until the early part of the 20th century. Similar enrichment of lead and zinc is shown in the remaining profiles. Whilst other possible explanations are discussed, it is argued that the high lead concentrations represent evidence of atmospheric pollution caused by mining. Zinc, however, may have suffered from post-depositional mobility. The results of this suggest that lead is largely rendered immobile in blanket peat and can be used to reconstruct atmospheric pollution histories in former lead mining areas.

Analyses of patterns of copper and lead mineralization in human skeletons excavated from an ancient mining and smelting centre in the Jordanian desert: a reconnaissance study

Abstract In this reconnaissance study, skeletal materials from people, dating from ~1500 B.P., who lived by or worked at the ancient copper mines and furnaces of the Wadi Faynan in southern Jordan, were analysed using atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS) to determine the intensities of accumulation of copper and lead in their bones. Many of the bones analysed contained concentrations of these metals which are comparable to those of modern individuals who are heavily exposed to metals through contemporary industrial processes. Patterns of partitioning throughout the skeleton of a number of individuals were also studied. These AAS data suggest that within the human organism there may be some ability to influence the patterns of accumulation of copper within the skeleton. The humerus was frequently found to contain more copper than other bones studied. Within the humerus itself, the medial epicondyle frequently contained the highest concentrations, which may indicate a significant degree of organization or control of the process. These metal concentration data together with their toxicological consequences suggest that the health of the ancient human populations must have been adversely affected by exposure during life to copper in the environment. They also point to the need for further detailed studies of metal partitioning within the bones of the human skeleton.

Regional warming of the lower atmosphere in the wake of volcanic eruptions: the role of the Laki fissure eruption in the hot summer of 1783

Abstract A suggestion is made that the gases emitted in the Laki fissure eruption in the summer of 1783 contributed to the high surface-air temperatures recorded in many parts of Europe. This paper presents European documentary and instrumental evidence which suggests that, during the initial stages of the eruption of the Laki fissure in June and July 1783, intense localized warming of the lower atmosphere occurred in many parts of Europe. This phenomenon is examined in detail and a hypothesis advanced that, under specifically defined conditions, volcanic gases may lead to warming of the lower atmosphere.

Identifying the sources and timing of ancient and medieval atmospheric lead pollution in England using a peat profile from Lindow bog, ManchesterElectronic supplementary information (ESI) available: Two tables and two figures showing modelling of the age?depth relationship in sediments and Pb isotope results. See http://www.rsc.org/suppdata/em/b4/b401500b/

A peat core from Lindow bog near Manchester, England, was precisely cut into 2 cm slices to provide a high-resolution reconstruction of atmospheric Pb deposition. Radiocarbon and (210)Pb age dates show that the peat core represents the period ca. 2000 BC to AD 1800. Eleven radiocarbon age dates of bulk peat samples reveal a linear age-depth relationship with an average temporal resolution of 18.5 years per cm, or 37 years per sample. Using the Pb/Ti ratio to calculate the rates of anthropogenic, atmospheric Pb deposition, the profile reveals Pb contamination first appearing in peat samples dating from ca. 900 BC which clearly pre-date Roman mining activities. Using TIMS, MC-ICP-MS, and SF-ICP-MS to measure the isotopic composition of Pb, the (208)Pb/(206)Pb and (206)Pb/(207)Pb data indicate that English ores were the predominant sources during the pre-Roman, Roman, and Medieval Periods. The study shows that detailed studies of peat profiles from ombrotrophic bogs, using appropriate preparatory and analytical methods, can provide new insight into the timing, intensity, and predominant sources of atmospheric Pb contamination, even in samples dating from ancient times.