John I. Garver

Late Cenozoic exhumation of the Cascadia accretionary wedge in the Olympic Mountains, northwest Washington State

The apatite fission-track method is used to determine the exhumation history of the Olympic subduction complex, an uplifted part of the modern Cascadia accretionary wedge. Fission-track ages are reported for 35 sandstones from the Olympic subduction complex, and 7 sandstones and 1 diabase from the Coast Range terrane, which structurally overlies the Olympic subduction complex. Most sandstone samples give discordant results, which means that the variance in grains ages is much g reater than would be expected for radioactive decay alone. Discordance in an unreset sample is caused by a mix of detrital ages, and in a reset sample is caused by a mix of annealing properties among the detrital apatites and perhaps by U loss from some apatites. Discordant grainage distributions can be successfully interpreted by using the minimum age, which is the pooled age of the youngest group of concordant fission-track grain ages in a dated sample. The inference is that this fraction of apatites has the lowest thermal stability, and will be the first to reset on heating and the last to close on cooling. Comparison of the minimum age with depositional age provides a simple distinction between reset samples (minimum age younger than deposition) and unreset samples (minimum age older than deposition). The success of the minimum-age approach is demonstrated by its ability to resolve a well-defined age-elevation trend for reset samples from the Olympic subduction complex. Microprobe data suggest that the apatites that make up the minimum-age fraction are mostly fluorapatite, which has the lowest thermal stability for fission tracks among the common apatites. Reset minimum ages are all younger than 1 5Ma, and show a concentric age pattern; the youngest ages are centered on the central massif of the Olympic Mountains and progressively older ages in the surrounding lowlands. Unreset localities are generally found in coastal areas, indicating relatively little exhumation there. Using a stratigraphically coordinated suite of apatite fission-track ages, we estimate that prior to the start of exhumation, the base of the fluorapatite partial annealing zone was located at ~10 0°C and ~4.7 km depth. The temperature gradient at that time was 19.6 ± 4. 4°C/km, similar to the modern gradient in adjacent parts of the Cascadia forearc high. Apatite and previously published zircon fission-track data are used to determine the exhumation history of the central massif. Sedimentary rocks exposed there were initially accreted during late Oligocene and early Miocene time at depths of 12.1‐14.5 km and temperatures of ~242‐28 9°C. Exhumation began at ca. 18 Ma .A rock currently at the local mean elevation of the central massif (1204 m) would have moved through the α-damaged zircon closure temperature at about 13.7 Ma and ~10.0 km depth, and through the fluorapatite closure temperature at about 6.7 Ma and ~4. 4km depth. On the basis of age-elevation trends and paired cooling ages, we find that the exhumation rate in the central massif has remained fairly constant, ~0.75 km/m.y., since at least 14 Ma. Apatite fission-track data a re used to construct a contour map of long-term exhumation rates for the Olympic Peninsula. The average rate for the entire peninsula is ~0.28 km/m.y., which is comparable with modern erosion rates (0.18 to 0.32 km/m.y.) estimated from sediment yield data for two major rivers of the Olympic Mountains. We show that exhumation of this part of the Cascadia forearc high has been dominated by erosion and not by extensional faulting. Topography and erosion appear to have been sustained by continued accretion and thickening within the underlying Cascadia accretionary wedge. The rivers that drain the modern Olympic Mountains indicate that most of the eroded sediment is transported into the Pacific Ocean, where it is recycled back into the accretionary wedge, either by tectonic accretion or by sedimentary accumulation in shelf and slope basins. The influx of accreted sediments is shown to be similar to the outflux of eroded sediment, indicating that the Olympic segment of the Cascadia margin is currently close to a topographic steady state. The record provided by our fissiontrack data, of a steady exhumation rate for the central massif area since 14 Ma, suggests that this topographic steady state developed within several million years after initial emergence of the forearc high.

Late Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the northwestern Tien Shan: New age estimates for the initiation of mountain building

The Tien Shan are the quintessential intracontinental range, situated more than 1000 km north of the suture between India and Asia. Their initiation and growth in the Cenozoic, however, remain poorly understood. In this study we present stratigraphic, detrital fission-track, and magnetostratigraphic results that provide a basis for reconstructing the Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Kyrgyz Range and adjacent Chu basin in the northwestern Tien Shan. Detrital fission-track thermochronology indicates that the northwestern Tien Shan was tectonically quiescent for much of the Cenozoic. Prior to uplift and exhumation in the late Miocene, the Kyrgyz Range was buried by sediments shed from highlands to the south and/or east. Paired bedrock fission-track and [U-Th]/He ages from a sampling transect of 2.4 km relief demonstrate that rapid exhumation commenced at ca. 11 Ma. Initial thrusting in the hinterland was followed by evaporite accumulation (;0.4 km/m.y.), which coincided with erosion of the pre‐11 Ma strata that mantled the Kyrgyz Range. Between 10 and 3 Ma, bedrockexhumation rates decreased to ,0.3 km/ m.y., while sedimentation rates decelerated initially to ;0.25 km/m.y. before accelerating to ;0.4 km/m.y. at 4‐5 Ma. Detrital fission-track results indicate that by 4.5 Ma,

Building the Northern Tien Shan: Integrated Thermal, Structural, and Topographic Constraints

Paired apatite fission track and U‐Th/He dates provide the first Late Cenozoic cooling ages for the northern Tien Shan. These data clearly argue for pulsed deformation since the Late Miocene, with early (10–11 Ma) and late (0–3 Ma) intervals of rapid exhumation separated by an extended interval of much slower rates. By integrating these bedrock cooling rates with shortening estimates derived from a balanced section, detrital cooling ages, and geomorphological estimates of conditions before deformation, we reconstruct a four‐stage history of range growth and exhumation. Following ∼100 m.yr. of tectonic quiescence, abruptly accelerated rock uplift, exhumation, and cooling in the Kyrgyz Range commenced at ∼11 Ma with rates exceeding ∼1 km/m.yr. During the subsequent 7 m.yr., deformation and cooling rates decreased three‐ to sixfold before accelerating by comparable amounts during the past 3 m.yr. Since mid‐Miocene times, the surface elevation of the Kyrgyz Range has increased ∼2 km, consistent with the reconstructed magnitude of crustal shortening (∼11 km) and thickening (∼12 km) across the range. The highly pulsed deformation rates indicate that the locus of deformation probably shifted repeatedly within the Tien Shan from the Miocene to present. Even at their most rapid, Cenozoic shortening rates in the Kyrgyz Range were equivalent to only 10%–20% of the modern geodetic convergence rate across the entire Tien Shan. This requires several ranges within the Tien Shan to have deformed simultaneously since the Middle Miocene, a situation analogous to the distributed shortening seen today.

Steady-state exhumation of the European Alps

Fission-track grain-age distributions for detrital zircon are used in this study to resolve the late Cenozoic exhumation history of the European Alps. Grain-age distributions were determined for six sandstone samples and one modern river sediment sample, providing a record from 15 Ma to present. All samples can be traced to sources in the Western and Central Alps. The grain-age distributions are dominated by two components, P1 (8–25 Ma) and P2 (16–35 Ma), both of which show steady lag times (cooling age minus depositional age), with an average of 7.9 m.y. for P1 and 16.7 m.y. for P2. These results indicate steady-state exhumation in the source region at rates of ∼0.4–0.7 km/m.y. since at least 15 Ma.

A zero-damage model for fission-track annealing in zircon

Abstract A zircon fission track-annealing model is calculated on the basis of annealing experiments from the literature with induced tracks in α-decay event damage-free zircon samples. Empirically derived parallel and fanning equations for this “zero-damage” model yield an excellent fit to the data, with the fanning model providing slightly better statistical parameters. A comparison between annealing models with fanning iso-annealing lines but different α-decay event damage densities reveals that annealing temperatures and closure temperatures for the estimated partial annealing zone are highest for the zero-damage model. Compilations of existing geologic constraints on the zircon partial-annealing zone on one hand and the zircon closure temperature on the other show that these constraints do not or only partly overlap with curves of proposed models for the zircon partial-annealing zone and closure temperature. This finding is consistent with the fact that the annealing behavior of zircon from long-duration temperature evolutions is increasingly influenced by the accumulated α-decay event damage. Zircon samples of young age or low U content show a behavior closest to the predictions of the zero-damage model, and are in the predicted range of published models with low α-decay event damage density. For thermal events of more than 10 myr duration, however, constraints from field studies show marked differences from proposed partial-annealing zone boundaries of the zero- or low-damage models. The applicability of the zero-damage model is threefold. (1) It predicts correct closure temperatures in the case of very rapid cooling across the partial annealing zone where basically no α-decay event damage is accumulated. (2) It predicts an uppermost boundary for complete annealing of a mixture of zircon components of different age, as found in sedimentary samples, and in this case may be used as a thermometer. (3) It represents an important reference for the establishment of a more comprehensive model of zircon fission-track annealing that also includes the influence of α-decay event damage. For such a model, two different equations are discussed. However, additional detailed experimental and field data are needed for a more robust annealing model that includes the influence of α-decay event-damage annealing.

Chromium and Nickel in Shale of the Taconic Foreland: A Case Study for the Provenance of Fine-Grained Sediments with an Ultramafic Source

ABSTRACT To test the suitability of using shale geochemistry as a provenance indicator of a source with an ultramafic component, we used I.C.P. Mass Spectrometry to analyze 130 samples from seven localities from Newfoundland to New York. These samples represent mud from the foreland basin produced during the collision of the Taconic are with North America in the Ordovician. The sandstones in the flysch contain detrital chromite and other detritus that indicate that the source contained ultramafic rocks, presumably from ophiolites emplaced during collision. This setting is an ideal test case for examining the spatial and temporal variation in Cr and Ni geochemistry of shale derived from ophiolite-bearing highlands. Shale samples with high concentrations of Cr and Ni have a Cr/Ni ratio of 1.4, which is approximately the Cr/Ni ratio for ultramafic rocks ( 1.6), suggesting only minor geochemical partitioning, but sandstones have a Cr/Ni ratio of > 3.0, suggesting significant sedimentary fractionation. Analyses of samples taken upsection in a single stratigraphic section suggest that proximity to the source influences Cr and Ni concentrations. A decrease in Cr and Ni concentrations through time suggests that uplift and erosion of the thrust complex (non-ophiolitic) diluted the ultramafic signal. We attribute significant along-strike variation in Cr and Ni concentrations to the relative proportion of ultramafic rocks in the source region. This case study shows that Cr and Ni geoch mistry of shale from basin strata can be used to determine the lateral and temporal variability of ultramafic rocks in an active orogenic setting.

Exhumation history of orogenic highlands determined by detrital fission-track thermochronology

Abstract A relatively new field in provenance analysis is detrital fission-track thermochronology which utilizes grain ages from sediment shed off an orogen to elucidate its exhumational history. Four examples highlight the approach and usefulness of the technique. (1) Fission-track grain age (FTGA) distribution of apatite from modern sediment of the Bergell region of the Italian Alps corresponds to ages obtained from bedrock studies. Two distinct peak-age populations at 14.8 Ma and 19.8 Ma give calculated erosion rates identical to in situ bedrock. (2) Zircon FTGA distribution from the modern Indus River in Pakistan is used to estimate the mean erosion rate for the Indus River drainage basin to be about 560 m Ma−1, but locally it is in excess of 1000 m Ma−1. (3) FTGA distribution of detrital apatite and zircon from the Tofino basin records exhumation of the Coast Mountains in the Canadian Cordillera. Comparison of detrital zircon and apatite FT ages gives exhumation rates of c. 200 m Ma−1 during the interval between c. 34 and 54 Ma, but higher rates (c. 1500 m Ma−1) at c. 56 Ma. (4) FTGA analysis of apatite grain ages from a young basin flanking Fiordland in New Zealand indicates that removal of cover strata was followed by profound exhumation at c. 30 Ma, which corresponds to plate reorganization at this time. Exhumation rates at the onset of exhumation were c. 2000–5000 m Ma−1. These studies outline the technique of detrital FTGA applied to exhumation studies and highlight practical considerations: (1) well-dated, stratigraphically coordinated suites of samples that span the exhumation event provide the best long-term record; (2) strata from the basin perimeter are the most likely to retain unreset detrital ages; (3) the removal of ‘cover rocks’ precedes exhumation of deeply buried rocks, which retain a thermal signal of the exhumation event; (4) steady-state exhumation produces peak ages that progressively young with time and have a constant lag time; (5) same-sample comparison of zircon and apatite peak ages is best in sequences with high-uranium apatite grains (>50 ppm), and peak-ages statistics can be improved by counting numerous apatite grains (>100).

Incomplete retention of radiation damage in zircon from Sri Lanka

Abstract A suite of 18 zircon gemstones from placers in the Highland/Southwestern Complex, Sri Lanka, were subjected to a comprehensive study of their radiation damages and ages. The investigation included X-ray diffraction, Raman and PL spectroscopy, electron microprobe, PIXE and HRTEM analysis, as well as (U-Th)/He and SHRIMP U-Th-Pb age determinations. Zircon samples described in this study are virtually homogeneous. They cover the range from slightly metamict to nearly amorphous. Generally concordant U-Th-Pb ages averaging 555 ± 11 Ma were obtained. Late Ordovician zircon (U-Th)/He ages scattering around 443 ± 9 Ma correspond reasonably well with previously determined biotite Rb-Sr ages for rocks from the HSWC. Slightly to moderately metamict zircon has retained the radiogenic He whereas only strongly radiation-damaged zircon (calculated total fluences exceeding ~3.5 × 1018 α-events/g) has experienced significant He loss. When compared to unannealed zircon from other localities, Sri Lanka zircon is about half as metamict as would correspond to complete damage accumulation over a ~555 m.y. lasting self-irradiation period, suggesting significant annealing of the structural radiation damage. Insufficient consideration of this has often resulted in significant underestimation of radiation effects in zircon. We suggest to estimate “effective α-doses” for Sri Lanka zircon by multiplying total α-fluences, which were calculated using the zircon U-Th-Pb age, by a correction factor of 0.55. This conversion may be applied to literature data as well, because all gem-zircon samples from Sri Lanka (this work and previous studies) seem to reveal the same general trends of property changes depending on the radiation damage. The use of “effective α-doses” for Sri Lanka zircon contributes to more reliable quantitative estimates of radiation effects and makes possible direct comparison between natural and synthetic radiation-damaged zircon.

Implications for Timing of Andean Uplift from Thermal Resetting of Radiation‐Damaged Zircon in the Cordillera Huayhuash, Northern Peru

The Cordillera Huayhuash is a north‐south‐oriented range along the drainage divide of the northern Peruvian Andes. The range has high topography with peaks in excess of 5500 m and the second‐highest peak in Peru, Nevados Yerupaja (6617 m). Bedrock is dominated by folded Mesozoic miogeoclinal rocks unconformably overlain by mid‐Tertiary volcanics intruded by Late Tertiary granitic rocks and silicic dikes. Zircon fission track (ZFT) and (U‐Th)/He (ZHe) dating of zircons along a west‐east transect elucidates the thermal evolution of exhumed and uplifted rocks. The stability of fission tracks in zircons is a function of single‐grain radiation damage. In samples with grain‐to‐grain variability in radiation damage, resetting results in variable resetting and multiple age populations. Low retentive zircons (LRZs), which have a partly disordered crystalline structure, have significant radiation damage and a low temperature of annealing (ca. 180°–200°C). High retentive zircons (HRZs), which are nearly crystalline, fully anneal at temperatures in excess of ca. 280°–300°C. Partly reset samples are those where LRZs are reset and HRZs are not reset, and therefore the cooling age is not concordant, but the young population of grain ages records the youngest thermal event. Full resetting of both LRZs and HRZs results in cooling ages that are concordant or nearly so. Lower Cretaceous quartzites show ZFT ages with a wide range of cooling ages, but most have LRZ reset ages at ca. 27 and 63 Ma. The ZFT ages from three quartzites and two granites from the core of the range yielded a single mean reset age of \documentclass{aastex} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{bm} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{pifont} \usepackage{stmaryrd} \usepackage{textcomp} \usepackage{portland,xspace} \usepackage{amsmath,amsxtra} \usepackage[OT2,OT1]{fontenc} \newcommand\cyr{ \renewcommand\rmdefault{wncyr} \renewcommand\sfdefault{wncyss} \renewcommand\encodingdefault{OT2} \normalfont \selectfont} \DeclareTextFontCommand{\textcyr}{\cyr} \pagestyle{empty} \DeclareMathSizes{10}{9}{7}{6} \begin{document} \landscape