John J. Steffen

The relationship between cognitive dysfunction and coping abilities in schizophrenia

Cognitive dysfunction is a core feature of schizophrenia [Psychiatr. Clin. North Am., 16 (1993) 295; Psychopharmacology: The fourth generation of progress, Raven Press, New York (1995) 1171; Clinical Neuropsychology, Oxford University Press, New York (1993) 449] and is related to psychosocial functioning in this population [Am. J. Psychiatry, 153 (1996) 321]. It is unclear whether cognitive dysfunction is related to specific areas of functioning in schizophrenia, such as coping abilities. Individuals with schizophrenia have deficient coping skills, which may contribute to their difficulties dealing with stressors [Am. J. Orthopsychiatry, 62 (1992) 117; J. Abnorm. Psychol., 82 (1986) 189]. The current study examined the relationship between coping abilities and cognitive dysfunction in a community sample of individuals with schizophrenia. It was hypothesized that executive dysfunction and mnemonic impairments would be positively related to deficiencies in active coping efforts involving problem solving and self-initiation (e.g. advocating for oneself and others with mental illness and becoming involved in meaningful activities, such as work), independent of the contributions of the general intellectual deficits associated with the disorder and psychiatric symptoms. The results indicated that both executive dysfunction and mnemonic impairments were related to decreased usage of active coping mechanisms after controlling for general intellectual deficits. Further, recognition memory made independent contributions to the prediction of coping involving action and help seeking after controlling for the effects of negative symptoms. These findings suggest that individuals with schizophrenia may be less flexible in their use of coping strategies, which may in turn contribute to their difficulties in coping with mental illness and its consequences.

Exercise and Eating Disorders in College-Aged Women: Profiling Excessive Exercisers

This study examined associations among excessive exercise, eating disorders, and selected psychological characteristics in college women ( N = 586). Participants were recruited from university classes and administered the Obligatory Exercise Questionnaire, Eating Disorders Inventory--2, Bulimia Test-Revised, and other psychosocial measures. Results indicated that obligatory exercise is best viewed as multidimensional. These dimensions were used, through cluster analysis, to generate a typology of exercisers. One identified group clearly manifested eating disorder traits and behaviors, as well as signs of psychological disturbance. Another group who exercised with equal intensity but less emotional fixation showed the fewest signs of eating disorders and psychological distress.

The Dimensions of Obligatory Exercise

Abstract The Obligatory Exercise Questionnaire (OEQ) is one of several instruments used to measure excessive exercise activity, especially as it relates to eating disorders. This measure was subjected to factor analyses to determine its possible multidimensionality. Two hundred fifty high school students (133 females) completed the OEQ and the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI). Three useful factors emerged from the OEQ: Emotional Element of Exercise; Exercise Frequency and Intensity; and Exercise Preoccupation. Subscales derived from these factors all had higher correlations with the EDI and its subscales than did the total OEQ. These results highlight the complexity of the eating disorder-exercise connection.

Psychological Androgyny and Social Competence

The present study investigated the relationship between psychological androgyny and three self-report indicators of social competence: quality of interpersonal behavioral skills, level of interpersonal anxiety, and amount of social activity. 261 college students (150 men) of high androgyny were significantly more competent than low subjects.

Multimodal evaluation of therapy versus consultation components in a large inner-city early intervention program.

Cincinnatis Social Skills Development Program (SSDP) used a social competence model to direct its interventions for children. Systematic screening identified 15-25% of the primary grade children who showed behavioral problems and deficits in social skills at seven elementary schools. Multimodal evaluations comparing therapy and consultation interventions included three types of assessments over a 1 year period. Tests of social skills revealed that children who received both therapy and consultation services, compared to those who received only consultation, improved in a basic empathy skill and increased their externality in locus of control. School record data showed that therapy and consultation children improved in grades; but, consultation children improved most. Finally, trained observers found that therapy children, compared to children in consultation only, increased cooperative interactions with teachers and maintained appropriate solitary behaviors. The data are discussed as providing some support for the hypothesis that therapy produced increased benefits for children compared to the less costly consultation intervention. However, since therapy and consultation conditions were not differentiated on many assessments (e.g., tests of interpersonal problem-solving and advanced empathy skills; lateness; achievement), more intense behaviorally oriented interventions may be warranted.

Covert Reinforcement: Two Studies and a Comment

Two studies are reported: the first extends the generality of covert reinforcement; the second poses a question about the processes that underlie behavior change with this procedure. Exp. 1, conducted with 50 male hospitalized psychiatric patients, indicated that covert reinforcement produced a significant change in plural-noun responding on a word naming task. Exp. 2, using the same experimental design, with 25 male and 25 female college students, showed significant change only for male subjects. While some support has been produced for the efficacy of covert reinforcement, a question is raised concerning the value of an operant model for explaining behavioral change via covert reinforcement.

Progressive relaxation training: Muscle contraction before relaxation?*

Only minimal research has been conducted to determine if muscle contraction before relaxation is more effective than Edmund Jacobsons technique of using no muscle contraction relaxation. It is this question that the present investigation addressed with an analogue population consisting of three subject groups: muscle contraction relaxation (MC); relaxation without muscle contraction (WMC); and self-induced relaxation control (C). Subjects participated in a single session of progressive relaxation. Subjects had no previous relaxation training and had moderate trait anxiety scores. A significant main effect for group resulted for the electromyographic (EMG) measures. The mean EMG measures identified the WMC group as most relaxed (i.e. experiencing the least amount of muscle tension), followed by the C group, then the MC group.

Links Among Eating Disorder Characteristics, Exercise Patterns, and Psychological Attributes in College Students

This study examined associations among eating disorder characteristics, excessive exercise, and selected psychological attributes in college students (N = 499). Male and female participants were recruited from university psychology courses and administered the Obligatory Exercise Questionnaire (OEQ), Mental Health Inventory, Eating Self-Efficacy Scale, Revised Restraint Scale, and Eating Disorder Inventory. Results confirmed the multidimensionality of excessive exercise for both males and females. Profiles of male and female exercisers were developed based on the clustering of scores on the OEQ’s factor analytically derived subscales. Specific qualitative aspects of exercise (e.g., emotionality and obsession), rather than the quantity of exercise, were found to be associated with eating disorder traits and, for some groups, psychological distress (PD). For other groups, such as female excessive exercisers, exercise seems to act as a coping mechanism, thereby lessening PD and enhancing well-being.

Selective Perception and Interpretation of Interpersonal Cues in Dyadic Interactions.

Summary Twenty high and 20 low socially anxious male college students interacted with a female confederate (C) for six minutes. The C alternated between providing the S with positive and negative social cues. High and low anxious S s did not selectively attend to positive or negative cues. However, high anxious S s felt the C would prefer to interact less with them in the future than did the low anxious S s. The findings suggest that socially anxious S s may perceive social events similarly to low anxious S s, but interpret these same events differently.