John M. Buffington

A systematic analysis of eight decades of incipient motion studies, with special reference to gravel-bedded rivers

Data compiled from eight decades of incipient motion studies were used to calculate dimensionless critical shear stress values of the median grain size, t* c 50 . Calculated t* c 50 values were stratified by initial motion definition, median grain size type (surface, subsurface, or laboratory mixture), relative roughness, and flow regime. A traditional Shields plot constructed from data that represent initial motion of the bed surface material reveals systematic methodological biases of incipient motion definition; t* c 50 values determined from reference bed load transport rates and from visual observation of grain motion define subparallel Shields curves, with the latter generally underlying the former; values derived from competence functions define a separate but poorly developed field, while theoretical values predict a wide range of generally higher stresses that likely represent instantaneous, rather than time-averaged, critical shear stresses. The available data indicate that for high critical boundary Reynolds numbers and low relative roughnesses typical of gravel-bedded rivers, reference-based and visually based studies have t* c50 ranges of 0.052-0.086 and 0.030-0.073, respectively. The apparent lack of a universal t*50 for gravel-bedded rivers warrants great care in choosing defendable t* c50 values for particular applications.

Pool Spacing in Forest Channels

Field surveys of stream channels in forested mountain drainage basins in southeast Alaska and Washington reveal that pool spacing depends on large woody debris (LWD) loading and channel type, slope, and width. Mean pool spacing in pool-riffle, plane-bed, and forced pool-riffle channels systematically decreases from greater than 13 channel widths per pool to less than 1 channel width with increasing LWD loading, whereas pool spacing in generally steeper, step-pool channels is independent of LWD loading. Although plane-bed and pool-riffle channels occur at similar low LWD loading, they exhibit typical pool spacings of greater than 9 and 2–4 channel widths, respectively. Forced pool-riffle channels have high LWD loading, typical pool spacing of <2 channel widths, and slopes that overlap the ranges of free-formed pool-riffle and plane-bed channel types. While a forced pool-riffle morphology may mask either of these low-LWD-loading morphologies, channel slope provides an indicator of probable morphologic response to wood loss in forced pool-riffle reaches. At all study sites, less than 40% of the LWD pieces force the formation of a pool. We also find that channel width strongly influences pool spacing in forest streams with similar debris loading and that reaches flowing through previously clear-cut forests have lower LWD loading and hence fewer pools than reaches in pristine forests.

Process-based Principles for Restoring River Ecosystems

Process-based restoration aims to reestablish normative rates and magnitudes of physical, chemical, and biological processes that sustain river and floodplain ecosystems. Ecosystem conditions at any site are governed by hierarchical regional, watershed, and reach-scale processes controlling hydrologic and sediment regimes; floodplain and aquatic habitat dynamics; and riparian and aquatic biota. We outline and illustrate four process-based principles that ensure river restoration will be guided toward sustainable actions: (1) restoration actions should address the root causes of degradation, (2) actions must be consistent with the physical and biological potential of the site, (3) actions should be at a scale commensurate with environmental problems, and (4) actions should have clearly articulated expected outcomes for ecosystem dynamics. Applying these principles will help avoid common pitfalls in river restoration, such as creating habitat types that are outside of a sites natural potential, attempting to build static habitats in dynamic environments, or constructing habitat features that are ultimately overwhelmed by unconsidered system drivers.

Effects of hydraulic roughness on surface textures of gravel-bed rivers

Field studies of forest gravel-bed rivers in northwestern Washington and southeastern Alaska demonstrate that bed-surface grain size is responsive to hydraulic roughness caused by bank irregularities, bars, and wood debris. We evaluate textural response by comparing reach-average median grain size (D50) to that predicted from the total bank-full boundary shear stress (t0 bf ), representing a hypothetical reference condition of low hydraulic roughness. For a given t0 bf , channels with progressively greater hydraulic roughness have systematically finer bed surfaces, presumably due to reduced bed shear stress, resulting in lower channel competence and diminished bed load transport capacity, both of which promote textural fining. In channels with significant hydraulic roughness, observed values of D50 can be up to 90% smaller than those predicted from t 0 bf . We find that wood debris plays an important role at our study sites, not only providing hydraulic roughness but also influencing pool spacing, frequency of textural patches, and the amplitude and wavelength of bank and bar topography and their consequent roughness. Our observations also have biological implications. We find that textural fining due to hydraulic roughness can create usable salmonid spawning gravels in channels that otherwise would be too coarse.

Hyporheic exchange in gravel bed rivers with pool-riffle morphology : Laboratory experiments and three-dimensional modeling

Received 7 June 2005; revised 30 June 2006; accepted 25 August 2006; published 31 January 2007. [1] We report the first laboratory simulations of hyporheic exchange in gravel pool-riffle channels, which are characterized by coarse sediment, steep slopes, and three-dimensional bed forms that strongly influence surface flow. These channels are particularly important habitat for salmonids, many of which are currently at risk worldwide and which incubate their offspring within the hyporheic zone. Here we perform a set of laboratory experiments examining the effects of discharge and bed form amplitude on hyporheic exchange, with surface-subsurface mixing measured directly from the concentration decay of a conservative tracer (fluorescein) injected into the surface flow. Near-bed pressure measurements were also used to predict hyporheic exchange from a three-dimensional pumping transport model. Comparison of the predicted and observed hyporheic exchange shows good agreement, indicating that the major mechanism for exchange is bed form–induced advection. However, the effect of bed forms is modulated by discharge and the degree of topographic submergence. We also tested the performance of the hydrostatic pressure as a proxy for the observed near-bed pressure in driving hyporheic exchange, which would facilitate field measurement and analysis of hyporheic flow in natural rivers. We found agreement with measured hyporheic exchange only for low bed form amplitudes and high flows.

Effects of sediment supply on surface textures of gravel‐bed rivers

Using previously published data from flume studies, we test a new approach for quantifying the effects of sediment supply (i.e., bed material supply) on surface grain size of equilibrium gravel channels. Textural response to sediment supply is evaluated relative to a theoretical prediction of competent median grain size (D9 50). We find that surface median grain size (D50) varies inversely with sediment supply rate and systematically approaches the competent value (D9) at low equilibrium transport rates. Furthermore, equilibrium transport rate is a power function of the difference between applied and critical shear stresses and is therefore a power function of the difference between competent and observed median grain sizes (D9 and D50). Consequently, we propose that the difference between predicted and observed median grain sizes can be used to determine sediment supply rate in equilibrium channels. Our analysis framework collapses data from different studies toward a single relationship between sediment supply rate and surface grain size. While the approach appears promising, we caution that it has been tested only on a limited set of laboratory data and a narrow range of channel conditions.

Friction angle measurements on a naturally formed gravel streambed: Implications for critical boundary shear stress

We report the first measurements of friction angles for a naturally formed gravel streambed. For a given test grain size placed on a bed surface, friction angles varied from 10o to over 100o; friction angle distributions can be expressed as a function of test grain size, median bed grain size, and bed sorting parameter. Friction angles decrease with increasing grain size relative to the median bed grain size, and are a systematic function of sorting, with lower friction angles associated with poorer sorting. The probability distributions of critical shear stress for different grain sizes on a given bed surface, as calculated from our friction angle data, show a common origin, but otherwise diverge with larger grains having narrower and lower ranges of critical shear stresses. The potential mobility of a grain, as defined by its probability distribution of critical shear stress, may be overestimated for larger grains in this analysis, because our calculations do not take into account the effects of grain burial and altered near-bed flow fields.

Valley Segments, Stream Reaches, and Channel Units

Valley segments, stream reaches, and channel units are three hierarchically nested subdivisions of the drainage network (Frissell et al. 1986), falling in size between landscapes and watersheds (see Chapter 1) and individual point measurements made along the stream network (Table 2.1; also see Chapters 3 and 4). These three subdivisions compose the habitat for large, mobile aquatic organisms such as fishes. Within the hierarchy of spatial scales (Figure 2.1), valley segments, stream reaches, and channel units represent the largest physical subdivisions that can be directly altered by human activities. As such, it is useful to understand how they respond to anthropogenic disturbance, but to do so requires classification systems and quantitative assessment procedures that facilitate accurate, repeatable descriptions and convey information about biophysical processes that create, maintain, and destroy channel structure.River valleys and their streams provide the physical template for riverine ecosystems, and exert strong controls on the spatial distribution of aquatic organisms and their susceptibility to natural and human-caused disturbances. This template can be described in terms of a nested hierarchy of valley segments, stream reaches, and channel units, providing a useful framework for understanding how riverine habitats are structured in watersheds. We review the physical characteristics of each element of this hierarchy and discuss the associated habitats for aquatic organisms. Methods are presented for classifying the valley segments and stream reaches using topographic maps, aerial photographs, and other databases, followed by methods for conducting field work to verify initial classification and to survey channel units.

A procedure for classifying textural facies in gravel‐bed rivers

Textural patches (i.e., grain-size facies) are commonly observed in gravel-bed channels and are of significance for both physical and biological processes at subreach scales. We present a general framework for classifying textural patches that allows modification for particular study goals, while maintaining a basic degree of standardization. Textures are classified using a two-tier system of ternary diagrams that identifies the relative abundance of major size classes and subcategories of the dominant size. An iterative procedure of visual identification and quantitative grain-size measurement is used. A field test of our classification indicates that it affords reasonable statistical discrimination of median grain size and variance of bed-surface textures. We also explore the compromise between classification simplicity and accuracy. We find that statistically meaningful textural discrimination requires use of both tiers of our classification. Furthermore, we find that simplified variants of the two-tier scheme are less accurate but may be more practical for field studies which do not require a high level of textural discrimination or detailed description of grain-size distributions. Facies maps provide a natural template for stratifying other physical and biological measurements and produce a retrievable and versatile database that can be used as a component of channel monitoring efforts.

MULTIVARIATE GEOMORPHIC ANALYSIS OF FOREST STREAMS: IMPLICATIONS FOR ASSESSMENT OF LAND USE IMPACTS ON CHANNEL CONDITION

Multivariate statistical analyses of geomorphic variables from 23 forest stream reaches in southeast Alaska result in successful discrimination between pristine streams and those disturbed by land management, specifically timber harvesting and associated road building. Results of discriminant function analysis indicate that a three-variable model discriminates 10 disturbed from 13 undisturbed reaches with 90 per cent and 92 per cent correct classification respectively. These variables are the total number of pools per reach, the ratio of mean residual pool depth to mean bankfull depth, and the ratio of critical shear stress of the median surface grain size to bankfull shear stress. The last variable can be dropped without a decrease in rate of correct classification; however, the resulting two-variable model may be less robust. Analysis of the distribution of channel units, including pool types, can also be used to discriminate disturbed from undisturbed reaches and is particularly useful for assessment of aquatic habitat condition. However, channel unit classification and inventory can be subject to considerable error and observer bias. Abundance of pool-related large woody debris is highly correlated with pool frequency and is an important factor determining channel morphology. Results of this study yield a much needed, objective, geomorphic discrimination of pristine and disturbed channel conditions, providing a reference standard for channel assessment and restoration efforts.