John N. Kinyuru

Can insects increase food security in developing countries? An analysis of Kenyan consumer preferences and demand for cricket flour buns

Achieving food security in an environmentally sustainable manner is one of the biggest challenges of our time. Using insects as food can serve this purpose because they are nutritionally valuable and environmentally friendly. Embracing insects as food requires information on potential consumer demand as this would determine the success of product development. In this study, we present one of the first thorough assessments of consumer demand for an insect-based food. We assessed the demand in terms of Kenyan consumer preferences and willingness to pay for buns containing varying amounts of cricket flour. We also assessed demand by predicting the market share in a presumed market scenario. The study used an incentivized discrete choice experiment integrated with sensory evaluations. This was intended to reduce any hypothetical bias and to allow participants to acquire experience by tasting the buns. We found significant and positive preferences for the cricket-flour-based buns. The bun products with medium amounts (5%) of cricket flour were preferred to no or high amounts (10%) of cricket flour. Market share predictions showed that cricket-flour-based buns were likely to obtain greater market shares than standard buns. Results also suggested that a market for breads made with cricket flour is likely in Kenya since the demand is present. This signals that insect-based food products may serve as a viable and demand-driven way to increase food security in Kenya in the future.

Nutrients, functional properties, storage stability and costing of complementary foods enriched with either termites and fish or commercial micronutrients

Application of edible insects in complementary food production has not been studied much. This study developed and evaluated complementary foods based on edible termites to combat child malnutritio...

Extraction technique influences the physico-chemical characteristics and functional properties of edible crickets (Acheta domesticus) protein concentrate

Protein extracts from edible insects have not been exploited fully in product development due to limited information on extraction and functionality of the protein extracts. Therefore there was a need to evaluate the effect of selected protein extraction methods on the physico-chemical characteristics and functional properties of extracted proteins. Farmed edible crickets were obtained from JKUAT farm in Kenya, freeze dried and ground to powder. The proteins were extracted using two methods namely; hexane and aqueous extraction. Yield was determined gravimetrically and colour by colourimetric method. The crude protein, crude fibre, crude fat, crude ash and available carbohydrates were determined using standard analytical methods. Protein digestibility was determined using enzymatic digestion methods while protein fractions were extracted and quantified gravimetrically. The water holding capacity was determined using standard AACC procedure. Emulsion capacity and stability, foaming capacity and foam stability were also investigated. HE recorded the highest yield. Lightness and hue angle were significantly affected by the extraction method with hexane extraction recording higher values compared to aqueous extraction (P < 0.0001, P = 0.0003). The proximate components except crude fiber were affected by the extraction method. Aqueous extraction recorded significantly higher values for globulin (19.42%), prolamin (6.26%) and glutelin (10.10%) (P < 0.0001). There was no significance difference in water holding capacity and oil adsorption capacity. However AE precipitate recorded higher values for emulsion capacity (41.70%), emulsion stability (33.61%), foaming capacity (11.11%) and foam stability (10.15%). Extraction methods had an effect on physio- chemical and functional characteristics of the protein concentrates.

Exploring the influence of differentiated nutrition information on consumers’ mental models regarding foods from edible insects: A means-end chain analysis

ABSTRACT This study used a field experiment and means-end chain analysis to examine the effects of positive and perceived negative nutrition information on the households’ motivations to consume insect-based foods. It used a random sample of households drawn from rural communities in Kenya. The study found that provision of nutrition information on benefits of edible insects and perceived negative aspects of insect-based foods influences participants’ perceptions of insect-based foods and hence acceptance. We also found that tasting real products influenced the nature of mental constructs. The results provide marketers of edible insects with potential marketing messages for promotion.

WinFood Data from Kenya and Cambodia: Constraints on Field Procedures

Background Researchers face myriad challenges in the design and implementation of randomized, controlled trials. Apart from summaries on limitations, these challenges are rarely documented in detail to inform future research projects. Objective To describe methodological challenges encountered during randomized, controlled trials (WinFood Study) designed to assess the efficacy of locally produced complementary foods based on traditional animal-source foods (edible termites and spiders) to support growth and nutritional status in Kenyan and Cambodian infants. Methods In a randomized, controlled design, infants received WinFood or corn—soy blend (CSB) for 9 months from 6 to 15 months of age. Lean mass accrual and blood nutrition indicators (lipid profile, iron and zinc status) were measured cross-sectionally at 9 and 15 months of age, respectively. Lean mass was determined by measuring deuterium oxide enrichment in saliva samples following a standard dose of deuterium solution (0.5 g/kg body weight) to infants. Blood nutrition indicators were determined following the drawing of 3 mL of blood by venipuncture. Results Challenges included rapid depletion of food rations, high rate of loss to follow-up, delayed ethical approval, lack of local food-processing capacity, low capacity among staff to draw blood, and lack of laboratory capacity to perform both deuterium oxide and micronutrient status measurements. Spillage of deuterium oxide solution during dosing was a major challenge in the Kenya context. A high rate of morbidity among infants made some assessments very difficult, especially drawing of blood and saliva samples. Conclusions The challenges were largely contextual. Improvement of local laboratory capacity, training of staff, and sensitization of the communities and the Ethics Review Committee are highly recommended.

The Role of Edible Insects in Diets and Nutrition in East Africa

Insects have been used as food, medicine and in rituals by a number of communities in the East African region comprising of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania over centuries. Progressively, farmed edible insects mainly crickets and grasshoppers are gaining popularity within the region. However the utilization of the edible insects is hampered by lack of storage and preservation facilities in the rural areas leading to high postharvest losses. Sun drying and roasting have been the main processing methods applied for decades by communities consuming edible insects such as the Luo from Kenya. Recently there has been incorporation of insects as an ingredient in processing of baked products and complementary foods. Culture, taboos, customs and ethnic preferences have highly influenced the consumption of edible insects in East Africa. Edible insects such as grasshoppers, mayfly and termites that are consumed in this region have been shown to be source of both macro and micro nutrients and other components such as chitin which has been linked to improved health and better management of chronic diseases. Therefore edible insects promises to be a part of the solution to food and nutrition security within the East African region.

Means-End Chain Approach Explains Motivations to Consume Insect-Based Foods: The Case of Cricket-Scones in Kenya

Edible insects are being promoted as a sustainable and inexpensive alternative of enhancing nutrition because they can provide proteins, good fats such as the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), calcium, vitamins, and energy. But little is known regarding what drives individuals to consume insect-based foods. The current study seeks to explain the effect of personal values on “cricket-scones” (used interchangeably with cricket-based scones) consumption in a developing country’s context. Employing laddering interviews and the means-end chain analysis, the relationship between “attributes” of cricket-scones, “consequences” of consuming them (outcomes), and personal “values” driving consumers’ decision-making process were systematically mapped to generate mental models related to consuming insect-based products. The personal values identified in this study cluster under the headings of “happy life”, “(food) security”, and “long life”. Amongst these, the main evidence (ladders) pointed to the desire to have a “happy life” and a “long life” that arise from improved family nutrition and financial position. Moderating these results by gender revealed higher involvement for males. The findings suggest that cricket-scones enhance the goals of achieving core personal values. Campaigns aiming to promote edible insects should therefore be premised on local food policies designed along the identified consumer-motivations. Other than the common nutritional and environment-friendly themes that have been used to promote edible insects; “happy life”, “(food) security”, and “healthy life” themes emerged as the central messages for the development of insect-based foods’ campaign strategies. Other empirical information in this study also have insightful policy implications.

Termites as Food in Africa

Apart from their important role in the breakdown of organic matter in tropical regions, termites are an important food source across sub-Saharan Africa, where they are consumed as delicacies both in rural and urban areas. This chapter reviews termite species as an edible insect and the overall role it plays in food and nutrition security in Africa. The study shows that Macrotermes is the most eaten genus with the species M. bellicosus taking the lead. The insects are always harvested from the wild during the rainy seasons, the months of March to June and November to December being the most important. Several methods of capture are employed using water in basins and lamps to attract them at night. Termites are highly nutritious with high levels of protein, fats, key vitamins, and minerals. With very little or no anti-nutrient, noxious chemicals and microbial concerns, they seem a great food source. Their inclusion in complementary food formulations has proved very satisfactory. However, climate change, seasonality, and overexploitation seem to be the current challenges to their full-scale use.

Effect of Low Tannin Sorghum Based Feed on Physical and Nutritional Quality of Layer Chicken Eggs

This study was carried out to evaluate the effect of replacing maize with low tannin sorghum (LTS) in layer feed on the physical and nutritional quality of eggs of layers at peak egg production stage. One hundred and twenty, 30-weeks old hens were grouped into three blocks of forty birds per block and were subjected to three different diets: 100%Maize, 50%Maize50%LTS and 100%LTS for 8 weeks. Eggs were collected on the 4th and 8th week of feeding trial. The results showed that eggs had statistically similar weights, amounts of protein, fat, Vitamin E and Vitamin A. The colour of egg yolks increased in lightness and reduced in hue and Chroma significantly across all the dietary blocks with increase in LTS while cholesterol content decreased. The saturated fatty acid content in the albumin and yolk oil extract remained constant irrespective of the period of feeding or variation of Maize and LTS content. The Monounsaturated fatty acid content decreased significantly (P=0.0003) during the whole trial diet period. The Polyunsaturated fatty acid content remained constant for the albumin (P=0.4095) while the yolk showed an increase (P=0.1162) from the initial 15.82±0.57 g/100g on the 4th week to 24.05±7.25 g/100g on the 8th week for diets with 100%Maize. 50%M50%LTS increased from 14.59±0.16 to 21.48±4.19 g/100g and 100%LTS had its Polyunsaturated fatty acid content decline from 13.36±0.31 to 10.71±0.32g/100g. This study indicates that LTS can replace Maize as a source of energy in chicken feeds with no adverse effects on the quality of the eggs.

Moisture adsorption properties and shelf-life estimation of dried and pulverised edible house cricket Acheta domesticus (L.) and black soldier fly larvae Hermetia illucens (L.)

Edible insects are part of the diets of a significant proportion of rural populations in the tropics especially Africa and Asia, and their use as source of key nutrients for better nutrition is re-emerging. Indigenously, elemental methods are used to process the insects before they are consumed or sold in retail outlets. In recent years, better knowledge of processing, packaging and storage has become necessary because of commercialisation needs. A common processing approach involves drying after a brief heat-treatment step, and then milling into a powdered product which is sold to manufacturers or consumers as ingredient for processing final products. The hydration properties of dried powders of edible house cricket and black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) were studied with the aim of predicting shelf-life stability under typical packaging and storage temperatures experienced in the tropics. Moisture adsorption isotherms were determined gravimetrically at 25, 30 and 35 °C, over 0.11-0.97 water activity (aW) range, and the data fitted to various models. Sorption isotherms were of type II according to Brunauer classification indicating monolayer-multilayer sorption behaviour. Cricket powder exhibited higher hydration capacity, and aW of this product was less sensitive to temperature variation as compared to BSFL powder. In the two products, water exhibited transitions from bound- to free- state at ~5 g/100 g moisture content. Based on Heiss-Eichner model, a shelf-life of 7 months at 25 °C can be achieved if the cricket and BSFL powders are dried to ca. 5 g/100 g moisture content and packaged in 80 μm thick polyethylene films. At 35 °C the shelf-life of the cricket product is shortened three- to four-fold whereas the BSFL powder is unable to store.