John Platt

A model for polyglossia and multilingualism (with special reference to Singapore and Malaysia)

Fergusons concept of diglossia and its later extension and coupling with bilingualism (Fishman et al.) is developed further into the concept of polyglossia with multilingualism by discussion of various speech communities where these phenomena are in evidence. A general model is suggested which could cope with cases of polyglossia by a continuum ranging from H(igh) varieties through M(edium) varieties to L(ow) varieties. Devices for status ranking of speech varieties are discussed and established. The general matrix is then applied to two of the special cases discussed previously, namely the English-educated Chinese communities of Singapore and Malaysia. (Speech varieties and domains, multilingual societies, speech varieties and educational policies; Singapore, Malaysia.)

The nature of indigenized Englishes: Interference — Creativity — Universals

Abstract The concept of indigenized or “New” Englishes is first examined and a comparison is made with pidgins and creoles. Brief mention is also made of differences in the functional range of indigenized varieties of English in various countries. Because these varieties exhibit differences from “native” varieties in syntax, semantics, lexicon and phonology, they have naturally been considered as products of L1 interference. In many respects this is so. For example, the basilectal English of some members of the majority of the Chinese community of Singapore is often typologically closer to Chinese than to English. There have been some objections that these “New” varieties are not merely fossilized interlanguages but display creativity. The evidence provided is usually of a lexical nature. Many of these varieties do display interesting creativity but it is often difficult to determine whether innovations are genuinely creative or the result of mishearing, calques from local languages, official terms or relics from the colonial past. In any case, creativity cannot explain phonological and syntactic differences. Recently, it has been found that some, if not all, indigenized varieties of English also show evidence of language universals, not merely universal learning strategies but universals of a deeper semantic type. The evidence presented does not necessarily support Bickertons “bioprogram” nor his claims about the development of creoles (Bickerton 1981 : Roots of Language, Ann Arbor: Karoma). However, the data on past tense marking in Singaporean English cannot easily be explained by L1 interference, universal learning strategies or by creativity. Research on “New Englishes” requires a complex paradigm combining different viewpoints, comparison across varieties and joint projects by speakers of “native” and indigenized varieties.

Sociolects and their Pedagogical Implications

The relationship between linguistic features (e.g. the way a vowel is realized or the use of a particular syntactic structure) and the speaker’s social background has been perceived for some time. Often, however, members of a speech community who were aware of such relationships had a prescriptive attitude towards them. They used such expressions as ’bad speech, sloppy speech, lazy speech’ as opposed to ’nice speech, educated speech, a refmed way of speaking’. Linguists were inclined to shy away from investigating sociolects as it is a mammoth task full of problems and complexities, not least of which is the attitude of speakers being investigated, who may feel that the linguist is adversely judging their speech.

A case of language indigenisation: Some features of colloquial Singapore English

Abstract The process of language nativisation or indigenisation implies the adaptation of the language to fit the communicative needs of those adopting it. This applies particularly to the use of the language in the more informal speech domains, leading to the development of a local, colloquial variety. Such nativisation involves more than the use of lexical items from local languages or the formation of caiques in the nativised variety. It involves more than simplification of the adopted language. In a situation such as Singapore, where the status of English is high and where its functions have increased rapidly with the move towards English‐medium education, several types of convergence have occurred in the development of Colloquial Singapore English, including the use of Chinese particles, an aspectual rather than a tense system, Chinese type question tagging and an existential‐locative verb, got. It is suggested that it is this distinctively Singaporean, colloquial nativised variety of English which s...

Correlation between four models of nominal affixation in an Australian Western Desert Aboriginal language — pitjantjatjara

Abstract The Pitjantjatjara dialect of the Western Desert Australian Aboriginal Language is one of the most widely spoken aboriginal dialects in Australia. In addition to speakers at Ernabella Mission ()1 in the north-west of South Australia and Musgrave Park Reserve () somewhat to the south of Ernabella, many speakers of Pitjantjatjara and related dialects are to be found over a wide area of South Australia and the Northern Territory.