John R. Knapp

Q-methodology in the study of child phenomenology

Phenomenological research Is difficult with young children who may lack the requisite verbo-vocal skills to faithfully communicate their experience. This study explored the applicability of Q-methodology as a way of overcoming this problem. Eight preschool children performed Q sorts of 18 pictorial stimulus objects under 8 conditions of instruction. Principal components analysis and Varimax rotation of the extracted factors yielded 3–4 factors for each child, and the factor structures varied over children. This indicates that each child’s experience was organized (not random) and that the children sorted the pictures in different ways under the different conditions of instruction; that is, the children’s experiences were unique. Furthermore, the limited number of significant factors suggests that the sorts shared common variance, that is, commonalities of experience among children. We discussed several commonalities between Q-methodology and phenomenological psychology and the descriptive advantages of Q-methodology for yielding phenomenal data under conditions of minimal researcher-imposed constraints.

Overcoming problems: the perceived importance of willpower and other contributors

The present investigation examined the beliefs of nonprofessionals (N =225) concerning the importance of 20 contributors toward overcoming six problems. Factor analyses of importance ratings revealed similar patterns of covariation for each of the problems. The following four factors were identified: Social Consequences, Inner Control, Understanding, and a Positive Outlook-Instrumental Approach. The importance of individual contributors and the factors varied across problems, with those variables assessing inner control showing the greatest variability. Discussion centered on the distinction between the rated importance of self-reliance and the decision to seek help, and also considered the degree to which the beliefs of nonprofessionals would be incongruent with those of the professional provider.

Willpower, Behavior Therapy, and the Public

The present research assesses the degree to which laypersons adhere to the culturally transmitted assumption that the internal force of willpower is necessary to overcome 24 different behavioral problems. Respondents (n = 465) rated their agreement with the assertion that willpower is necessary on a 7-point scale. Willpower was rated as differentially necessary for overcoming various problem behaviors. A principal components factor analysis and subsequent rotation on the 24 problem behaviors indicated four factors of problem behavior for which willpower was viewed as being differentially necessary to overcome. Willpower was rated as more necessary for overcoming “self-indulgence” problems (e.g., alcoholism, smoking) and certain “non-self-indulgent” problems (e.g., shyness, fear of flying) than for overcoming “psychopathological” problems (e.g., nervous breakdown, hallucinations) and “ability deficits” (e.g., inability to swim, poor mathematical ability). Rated agreement of the necessity of willpower was unrelated to years of education, number of psychology classes completed, whether or not the respondent ever attended a college, and particular college attended. These findings support a potential source of conflict between the behavior therapist and the client with respect to the determinants of behavior. It is suggested that this conflict be investigated further so that its impact on therapeutic progress can be assessed.

Structure of body-build stereotypes: a methodological analysis.

College students (N = 182) were Ss in a study assessing the comparability of body build stereotypes as depicted through the use of various response formats. Stereotypes toward Endomorph and Mesomorph body types, respectively, were derived through responses to: (1) a traditional, forced-choice format; (2) a dimensionalized, bipolar item format requiring placement of 10 Endomorphs and 10 Mesomorphs, respectively, along each of 10 nine-point dimensions; (3) a format identical to Number 2 except in the requirement of only one Endomorph or Mesomorph attribution per dimension; and (4) a format requiring the estimation of the percentage of time an Endomorph and a Mesomorph, respectively, manifested the item-characteristic. Results indicated that although mean responses derived from the latter three methods were consistent in direction with corresponding forced-choice, frequency data, the intradimensional separation of most of these means was not markedly disparate; moreover, correlations between forced-choice responses and any and all of the latter methods were markedly low, although correlations among these latter methods were moderate. It was concluded that inferences drawn about the structure of body build stereotypes, based on data derived from forced-choice formats, were not supported by the data provided with the latter three formats. Implications for other stereotype research were discussed.

On Attitude Change: Issue-Involvement and Demand Characteristics

The present investigation examined the effects of level of involvement, demand characteristics (via a bogus pipeline procedure) and a persuasive communication on attitude change toward the issue of comprehensive exams for graduating seniors. 107 student participants were randomly assigned to one of eight (2 × 2 × 2) experimental conditions and attitudes were assessed prior to the experimental manipulation and afterwards. Over-all, participants who received a persuasive communication were more agreeable toward the issue than those who received no communication; however, the participants who were highly involved and tested under a bogus pipeline showed minimal change. The same conclusion was reached from an analysis of change scores between attitudes pre- and post-manipulation. The results suggested that demand characteristics may exert a more powerful influence on change in attitude than the level of involvement in the issue.

Structure of racial attitudes in white middle adolescents

Middle adolescent White children (N=101, mean age 17.0 years) were subjects in a study assessing the comparability of racial attitudes as measured through the use of various response formats. Attitudes toward White and Black racial stimuli, respectively, were assessed through responses to (1) a traditional, forced-choice format; (2) a dimensionalized, bipolar item format requiring placement of ten Whites and ten Blacks, respectively, along each of ten 7-point dimensions; (3) a format identical to (2) except in the requirement of only one racial stimulus attribution per dimension; and (4) a format requiring the estimation of the percentage of time a White and a Black stimulus, respectively, manifested each item characteristic. Although mean responses derived from the latter three response-latitude methods were directionally consistent with corresponding forced-choice, frequency data, neither the multidimensional locations of these means nor their intradimensional separations were very disparate. Moreover, although correlational analyses indicated relatively low forced-choice /response-latitude method consistency, and even lower, and essentially nonsignificant, intramethod consistency when intra-item Black-White ratings from the response-latitude methods were considered, moderate and significant consistencies existed in the intermethod comparisons among the response-latitude methods. This finding was taken as evidence of convergent and discriminant validation. It was concluded that inferences drawn about the structure of racial attitudes based on data derived from forced-choice formats are not supported by data derived from response-latitude methods and that, alternatively, these latter methods provide evidence for the existence of other attitude structures.

Self-Reported Variability and Enhancement of Prediction

The present study examined the role of self-reported variability in facilitating the prediction of behavior. Anxiety and extraversion scores based on the 16 PF were obtained for 100 (50 male and 50 female) students in introductory psychology. Each participant also was asked to judge how variable he was in each trait and to judge how anxious he would be in each of 18 situations and how extraverted he would behave in each of 17 situations. Multiple regression analyses showed that self-reported variability enhanced prediction of experiences of anxiety in 13 of 18 situations but had minimal impact on enhancing prediction of extravertive behavior. The results, in contrast with other research, suggest that self-reported variability need not undermine prediction of behavior and support the use of aggregate criteria and predictors to facilitate prediction.