John R. Rossiter

The C-OAR-SE procedure for scale development in marketing

Construct definition, Object classification, Attribute classification, Rater identification, Scale formation, and Enumeration and reporting (C-OAR-SE) is proposed as a new procedure for the development of scales to measure marketing constructs. COAR-SE is based on content validity, established by expert agreement after pre-interviews with target raters. In C-OAR-SE, constructs are defined in terms of Object, Attribute, and Rater Entity. The Object classification and Attribute classification steps in C-OAR-SE produce a framework (six types of scales) indicating when to use single-item vs. multiple-item scales and, for multiple-item scales, when to use an index of essential items rather than selecting unidimensional items with a high coefficient alpha. The Rater Entity type largely determines reliability, which is a precision-of-score estimate for a particular application of the scale.

The predictive validity of multiple-item versus single-item measures of the same constructs

This study compares the predictive validity of single-item and multiple-item measures of attitude toward the ad (AAd) and attitude toward the brand (ABrand), which are two of the most widely measured constructs in marketing. The authors assess the ability of AAd to predict ABrand in copy tests of four print advertisements for diverse new products. There is no difference in the predictive validity of the multiple-item and single-item measures. The authors conclude that for the many constructs in marketing that consist of a concrete singular object and a concrete attribute, such as AAd or ABrand, single-item measures should be used.

Store atmosphere and purchasing behavior

Abstract This study extends the Donovan and Rossiter (1982) study which introduced the Mehrabian-Russell (M-R) environmental psychology model into the store atmosphere literature. Donovan and Rossiters study was exploratory in that student subjects were used and intentions rather than shopping behavior were measured. The present study uses a broader sample of shoppers, measures emotions during the shopping experience rather than before or after, and records the effects on actual shopping behavior. The 1982 study found that experienced pleasantness of the in-store environment was a significant predictor of willingness to spend time in the store and intentions to spend more money than originally planned. This finding was extended behaviorally in the new study: pleasure, as rated five minutes into the shopping duration was a significant predictor of extra time spent in the store and actual incremental spending. Arousal was found to vary in its effects across the two studies and bears further investigation. The effects of the emotional factors of pleasure and arousal were shown to be additional to cognitive factors such as variety and quality of merchandise, price specialing and value for money. The practical significance for retailers is that emotional responses induced by the store environment can affect the time and money that consumers spend in the store.

Children and Commercial Persuasion: An Attribution Theory Analysis

This article studies childrens levels of understanding of television commercials and the associated effects upon attitudes and purchase request tendencies. Attribution theory, with its focus on perception of intent , is the research framework. The results suggest that when a child attributes persuasive intent to commercials, he believes them less, likes them less, and is less likely to want the products advertised.

Brain-imaging detection of visual scene encoding in long-term memory for TV commercials

ABSTRACT The authors report on experimental research using a new brain imaging technique (steady-state probe topography or SSPT) to investigate whether patterns of brain activity in the left or right frontal hemispheres could identify which frames from new TV commercials would be recognised by consumers one week later. The research revealed that video scenes held on screen for 1.5 seconds or longer were better recognised, and that scenes that elicited the fastest brain activity in the left frontal hemisphere were better recognised. The authors conclude that visual content that stimulates left-brain activity would create memorable advertising - and suggest a new method of pre-testing commercials.

Tailor-made single-item measures of doubly concrete constructs

The present study addresses how to measure three constructs commonly used in advertising research, namely attitude towards the ad, brand attitude and brand purchase intention. The study replicates and extends Bergkvist and Rossiter’s (2007) finding that single-item measures are equally predictively valid as multiple-item measures of basic (doubly concrete – see Rossiter’s 2002 C-OAR-SE procedure) constructs in marketing, namely AAd and ABrand. One extension is that the finding holds for free-standing, tailormade single-item measures, whereas the previous study establishes this result only for single-item measures extracted from multiple-item measures. Another extension is that single-item equivalence of predictive validity further holds for another widely employed dependent variable construct, PIBrand. The present study goes beyond Bergkvist and Rossiter’s study in that it shows that items commonly used in multiple-item measures of AAd and ABrand vary in their predictive validity and that, in some cases, the differences are substantial. The main finding is the further empirical proof that multiple-item scales are unnecessary for validly measuring basic constructs.

What Is Marketing Knowledge?: Stage I: forms of marketing knowledge

Marketing knowledge is the foundation of our discipline. However, there is not yet clear agreement about what marketing knowledge is. Three stages are envisioned in a project to investigate marketing knowledge: identification of the forms of marketing knowledge, specification of and agreement on the content, and development of a comprehensive test to measure acquisition of marketing knowledge. This article attempts the first stage, proposing that the four forms of marketing knowledge are: marketing concepts, structural frameworks, strategic principles, and research principles.

Comparing perceptions of marketing communication channels

Purpose – The purpose of this study is threefold: To compare many old and new media channels in terms of a range of attributes such as perceived intrusiveness, reliability, trustworthiness, convenience, and entertainment value. To compare the perceived relative effectiveness of alternative communication channels in terms of how a marketing proposition is evaluated by recipients and thus to establish whether some channels are better than others for achieving engagement and persuasion. To additionally survey the senders of marketing communications, to examine potential differences between how senders think recipients perceive each channel and what recipients actually perceive. Moreover, it is proposed that the survey be conducted in both consumer and business markets.Design/methodology/approach – First, in a survey, the channels are compared from the perspective of both receivers and senders of marketing communications and additionally from that of consumer and business markets. Second, by means of experime...

Reliability of a Short Test Measuring Children's Attitudes toward TV Commercials

This article presents a short objective test for measuring childrens attitudes toward television commercials. The test is shown to have high internal-consistency reliability (α = .69) and satisfactory test-retest reliability ( r = .67) for a sample of 208 4th through 6th grade children. Extension of the test for use with younger children and its modification for measurement of childrens attitudes toward other forms of advertising are discussed.

Ethnicity in Business and Consumer Behavior

Abstract The worldwide increases in migration, tourism, and international trade mean that the role of ethnicity will increase in business seller-buyer behavior and in consumer behavior. We believe ethnicity has been regarded too narrowly in past accounts of business and consumer behavior. In this study, we propose a new tri-component conceptualization of ethnicity: our broader conceptualization of ethnicity encompasses biological-physical, personality, and cultural components, which have important behavioral consequences.